Table Of ContentCOLLEGE STUDENTS AND VOCATION:
DISCERNING A LIFE OF PURPOSE
A Dissertation
presented to
the Faculty of
Claremont School of Theology
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
by
The Rev. Susan Elizabeth Young
May 2013
©2013
Susan Elizabeth Young
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
This dissertation completed by
SUSAN ELIZABETH YOUNG
has been presented to and accepted by the
faculty of Claremont School of Theology in
partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty Committee
Frank Rogers, Jr. (Chair)
Sheryl Kujawa-Holbrook
Andrew Dreitcer
Dean of the Faculty
Philip Clayton
May 2013
ABSTRACT
College Students and Vocation:
Discerning a Life of Purpose and Meaning
The Rev. Susan Elizabeth Young
This practical theological research study examines how college chaplains,
interfaith directors and higher education professionals can support college students in
their intellectual, ethical, religious and spiritual growth and vocational discernment. This
is accomplished by investigating an existing fellowship program at a small liberal arts
college in which students engage in community-based learning and small group reflection
and learn spiritual practices to nurture their spiritual growth and vocational discernment.
This researcher uses a dialogical method in which bibliographic and qualitative
research engage in critical conversation. The bibliographic research includes a review of
the literature in human development theory, the spiritual formation of young adults,
theology, spirituality, Christian spirituality, practical theology and religious education.
The qualitative study uses a phenomenological approach to develop a rich description of
the experiences of fourteen young adults who have participated in the fellowship. The
study identifies helpful practical theological methods for nurturing vocational
discernment through programs such as the fellowship in question. The study participants
provide informational and supportive comments about the program. Many of them still
reflect upon the fellowship after graduating from college.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank numerous faculty mentors, colleagues, former and current
students, friends and family for supporting me through the completion of this dissertation.
I begin by thanking the three members of my dissertation committee for their enthusiasm
for this project: Dr. Frank Rogers, Jr., Dr. Andrew Deeter Dreitcer and Dr. Sheryl
Kujawa-Holbrook. Their scholarship informs much of this work while their gracious
support over years inspired me to continue to pursue this project when at times it seemed
impossible. I thank Dr. Kathleen Greider, Dr. Rosemary Radford Ruether and Dr. Philip
H. Dreyer for serving on my comprehensive exam committee. I also offer my gratitude
to Dr. Elizabeth Conde-Frazier, Betty Clements and the faculty and staff at the Claremont
School of Theology.
I thank Dr. Barbara Avery and my colleagues within the Division of Student
Affairs and the Office for Religious and Spiritual Life for their constant support and
affirmation. In particular, I thank Irma Mancilla without whom this project literally
would never have been finished. I also thank the student programming assistants over the
years for their dedication to supporting the religious and spiritual growth of their peers
and others on our campus.
I extend my gratitude to my family and friends who have and continue to sustain
and nurture me. In particular, I think Dr. Anne Walker Gibson, Monica Halstead, Nina
Bye, the Rev. James Juhan and Cynthia Conners for their love and support. Finally, I
thank the amazing young adults who participated in this study and the countless former
students who have blessed me with their wisdom and friendship.
Table of Contents
Chapter
1. YOUNG ADULTHOOD AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORY...................1
Introduction........................................................................................................1
Psychosocial Development..............................................................................1
The Evolving Self- A Theory on Ego Development.....................................9
Faith Development Theory............................................................................13
Intellectual and Ethical Development...........................................................21
Young Adulthood and the Construction of Meaning..................................25
Emerging Adulthood......................................................................................32
Racial and Ethnic Identity Development.....................................................39
Reflections......................................................................................................49
2. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS.................51
Introduction.....................................................................................................51
Recent Research on Religion and Higher Education...................................54
Religion and Emerging Adulthood...............................................................68
Reflections......................................................................................................75
3. VOCATION AND COLLEGE STUDENTS..............................................................81
Introduction.....................................................................................................81
Historical Overview.......................................................................................82
Reflections.....................................................................................................112
4. SPIRITUALITY AND DISCERNMENT..................................................................118
Introduction....................................................................................................118
Understanding Spirituality...........................................................................119
Understanding Christian Spirituality..........................................................124
Christian Spiritual Formation Practices......................................................127
Exploration of Particular Christian Practices.............................................132
Engaged Buddhism.......................................................................................147
Reflections....................................................................................................151
5. SUPPORTING COLLEGE STUDENT VOCATIONAL DISCERNMENT 160
Introduction...................................................................................................160
The Fellowship..............................................................................................163
Religious Education Theory and Practice...................................................167
Practical Theology and The Research Project...........................................173
Overall Analysis of the Fellowship Experience.........................................185
Reflections....................................................................................................215
Recommendations........................................................................................220
Study Limitations.........................................................................................221
APPENDIX A....................................................................................................................223
APPENDIX B....................................................................................................................233
BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................237
TABLES
Table 5.1 Helpful Seminar Exercises Identified by Study Participants 203
Table 5.2 Helpful Contemplative Practices Identified by Study Participants 209
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CHAPTER 1
YOUNG ADULTHOOD AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Introduction
Young adulthood is a time of great promise and possibility as young people leave
home to begin college or seek independence in the world of work. During the college
years, young adults are introduced to new ideas, perspectives and worldviews that can
spark their intellectual, ethical and religious or spiritual growth. As young people wrestle
with these new ideas, they also work to identify and refine their personal values and
beliefs and consider how these commitments influence the way they see the world. The
search to identify meaningful work is part of this journey.
Higher education personnel and other caring adults who desire to nurture the
holistic development of their students draw from human development theory to identify
the particular challenges, struggles and unique developmental tasks associated with
young adulthood. In the following chapter, I discuss the work of several human
developmental scholars with a particular focus on young adulthood.
Psychosocial Development
Erik H. Erikson has been described as one of the “well-known grandfathers” of
constructive-developmental psychology.1 He is responsible for developing a
psychosocial developmental approach to human development. As a psychoanalyst,
Erikson was influenced by Sigmund Freud’s theories on psychosexual development.
James W. Fowler observes that Erikson built upon Freud in two ways. First, Erikson
1 Sharon Daloz Parks, Big Questions, Worthy Dreams: Mentoring Young Adults in Their Search for
Meaning, Purpose, and Faith (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000), 36.
■y
examined how the social environment impacts human psychological development.
Second, Erikson expanded Freud’s theory on child psychosexual development to
articulate a theory of psychosocial development for the entire human lifespan.3
Erikson believed that human development relied upon the epigenetic principle, a
principle first used by researchers studying the growth of embryos. Embryologists use
this principle to refer to the way in which an embryo develops each organ through a
biologically predetermined sequence; the healthy development of each organ is
dependent upon the healthy development of all organs developed prior to it.4 Erikson
extended the epigenetic principle beyond birth, arguing that human beings go through
eight developmental stages or ages according to a biologically predetermined sequence in
the same way that an embryo develops in the uterus. At each stage a person encounters a
psychosocial crisis induced by biological (soma) and psychological (ego) growth. One’s
ability to overcome this crisis is influenced by one’s social environment and how one has
resolved the crises from previous stages.
Erikson uses the term crisis to refer to a “turning point, a crucial period of
increased vulnerability and heightened potential” and not a “threat of catastrophe.”5
Erikson notes that when a person successfully completes the developmental tasks
associated with each stage, he or she receives a psychological strength unique to that
stage. As a person transitions to the next stage, he or she must deal with the tasks
associated with each previous stage and anticipates future tasks associated with future
2 James W. Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning
(San Francisco: FlarperSanFrancisco, 1995), 43.
3 Fowler, Stages of Faith, 43.
4 Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society, 35th Anniversary ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1986; reissued
1993), 65-66.
5 Erik H. Erikson, Identity, Youth and Crisis (New York: W.W. Norton, 1968; reissued 1994), 96.
3
stages. A description of each of Erikson’s eras or stages of psychosocial development
follows with a more detailed description of the stages of adolescence and young
adulthood in light of the ongoing discussion.6
Stage One (Infancy): Trust vs. Mistrust - Psychological Strength of Hope:
According to Erikson, the most critical task of ego development is to develop trust which
he calls “the cornerstone of a vital personality.”7 This occurs in infancy as babies learn to
trust that their biological needs will be met by their mothers (or caregivers) and learn to
trust themselves as they start to control their physical urges. As infants develop trust,
they receive the psychological strength of hope.
Stage Two (Early Childhood): Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Psychological
Strength of Will: As infants grow physically, they become more autonomous. With
autonomy comes the ego strength of will power. Yet young children also become self-
conscious and begin to feel what it means to be exposed to others. This can lead to a
sense of shame and doubt.
Stage Three (Play Age): Initiative vs. Guilt - Psychological Strength of Purpose:
Erikson identifies three developments during this stage: (1) the ability to move more
freely; (2) the ability to communicate more clearly; and, (3) the ability to imagine and
play. These factors lead children to develop a sense of initiative; the emerging
psychological strength is purpose. As children become subject to restrictions they may
6 This summary is based on Erikson’s presentation of his developmental theory in Childhood and Society,
Youth, Identity and Crisis and The Life Cycle Completed, Extended Version with New Chapters on the
Ninth Stage of Development by Joan M. Erikson (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997). While Erikson
originally identified eight stages or ages, Joan Erikson added a ninth stage covering life for people in their
80’s-90’s as a reflection of the fact that people are living longer. This ninth stage focuses on the way in
which our oldest members of society can respond to the physical and mental hurdles associated with the
loss of physical and cognitive abilities. For more information, see The Life Cycle Completed, 105-114.
7 Erikson, Identity, Youth and Crisis, 97.
