Table Of Contenthtptp V4 asia 8/29/03 12:00 PM Page 1
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WORLDMARK
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE NATIONS
ASIA & OCEANIA
htptp V4 asia 8/29/03 12:00 PM Page 3
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ISSN 1531-1635
WORLDMARK
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE NATIONS
Volume 4
ASIA & OCEANIA
WEN11th.book Page iv Friday, September 19, 2003 2:35 PM
Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Eleventh Edition
Timothy L. Gall, Editor in Chief
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C O N T E N T S
For Conversion Tables, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Glossaries, World
Tables, Notes to the Tenth Edition, and other supplementary materials,
see Volume 1.
Guide to Country Articles..............................................vi Marshall Islands ........................................................423
Afghanistan ...................................................................1 Micronesia, Federated States of ...............................430
Australia ......................................................................15 Mongolia ..................................................................437
Azerbaijan ...................................................................34 Myanmar ..................................................................448
Bahrain .......................................................................47 Nauru .......................................................................463
Bangladesh .................................................................56 Nepal .......................................................................470
Bhutan ........................................................................71 New Zealand ............................................................486
Brunei Darussalam ......................................................82 Oman .......................................................................503
Cambodia ...................................................................91 Pakistan ....................................................................512
China ........................................................................108 Palau ........................................................................531
Cyprus ......................................................................138 Papua New Guinea ...................................................537
East Timor..................................................................150 Philippines ................................................................547
Fiji .............................................................................158 Qatar ........................................................................566
French Pacific Dependencies .....................................167 Samoa ......................................................................574
Hong Kong see China Sa‘udi Arabia ............................................................582
India .........................................................................170 Singapore .................................................................595
Indonesia ..................................................................196 Solomon Islands .......................................................609
Iran ...........................................................................219 Sri Lanka ...................................................................616
Iraq ...........................................................................235 Syria .........................................................................632
Israel .........................................................................249 Taiwan .....................................................................645
Japan ........................................................................267 Tajikistan ..................................................................660
Jordan .......................................................................290 Thailand ...................................................................671
Kazakhstan ................................................................303 Tonga .......................................................................689
Kiribati ......................................................................316 Turkey ......................................................................697
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of ....................323 Turkmenistan ............................................................716
Korea, Republic of .....................................................338 Tuvalu ......................................................................728
Kuwait ......................................................................352 United Arab Emirates ................................................734
Kyrgyzstan ................................................................362 United States Pacific Dependencies ...........................744
Lao People’s Democratic Republic..............................373 Uzbekistan ................................................................749
Lebanon ...................................................................386 Vanuatu ....................................................................759
Macau see China Vietnam ....................................................................767
Malaysia ....................................................................398 Yemen ......................................................................785
Maldives ...................................................................415 Index to Countries.....................................................799
v
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G U I D E T O C O U N T R Y A R T I C L E S
All information contained within a country article is uniformly keyed by means of small superior
numerals to the left of the subject headings. A heading such as “Population,” for example, carries the
same key numeral (6) in every article. Thus, to find information about the population of Albania, consult
the table of contents for the page number where the Albania article begins and look for section 6
thereunder. Introductory matter for each nation includes coat of arms, capital, flag (descriptions given
from hoist to fly or from top to bottom), anthem, monetary unit, weights and measures, holidays, and
time zone.
SECTION HEADINGS IN NUMERICAL ORDER SECTION HEADINGS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
1 Location, size, and extent 27 Energy and power Agriculture 22 Income 20
2 Topography 28 Industry Animal husbandry 23 Industry 28
3 Climate 29 Science and technology Armed forces 17 Insurance 34
4 Flora and fauna 30 Domestic trade Balance of payments 32 International cooperation 18
5 Environment 31 Foreign trade Banking and securities 33 Judical system 16
6 Population 32 Balance of payments Bibliography 50 Labor 21
7 Migration 33 Banking and securities Climate 3 Languages 9
8 Ethnic groups 34 Insurance Customs and duties 37 Libraries and museums 44
9 Languages 35 Public finance Dependencies 49 Local government 15
10 Religions 36 Taxation Domestic trade 30 Location, size, and extent 1
11 Transportation 37 Customs and duties Economic development 39 Media 45
12 History 38 Foreign investment Economy 19 Migration 7
13 Government 39 Economic development Education 43 Mining 26
14 Political parties 40 Social development Energy and power 27 Organizations 46
15 Local government 41 Health Environment 5 Political parties 14
16 Judicial system 42 Housing Ethnic groups 8 Population 6
17 Armed forces 43 Education Famous persons 48 Public finance 35
18 International cooperation 44 Libraries and museums Fishing 24 Religions 10
19 Economy 45 Media Flora and fauna 4 Science and technology 29
20 Income 46 Organizations Foreign investment 38 Social development 40
21 Labor 47 Tourism, travel, and Foreign trade 31 Taxation 36
22 Agriculture recreation Forestry 25 Topography 2
23 Animal husbandry 48 Famous persons Government 13 Tourism, travel, and
24 Fishing 49 Dependencies Health 41 recreation 47
25 Forestry 50 Bibliography History 12 Transportation 11
26 Mining Housing 42
FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ad—Anno Domini etc.—et cetera (and so on) kw—kilowatt(s) pm—after noon
am—before noon f—Fahrenheit kwh—kilowatt-hour(s) r.—reigned
b.—born fl.—flourished lb—pound(s) rev. ed.—revised edition
bc—Before Christ FRG—Federal Republic of m—meter(s); morning s—south
c—Celsius Germany m3—cubic meter(s) sq—square
c.—circa (about) ft—foot, feet mi—mile(s) St.—saint
cm—centimeter(s) ft3—cubic foot, feet Mt.—mount UK—United Kingdom
Co.—company GATT—General Agreement on Mw—megawatt(s) UN—United Nations
Corp.—corporation Tariffs and Trade n—north US—United States
cu ft—cubic foot, feet GDP—gross domestic products n.d.—no date USSR—Union of Soviet
cu m—cubic meter(s) gm—gram NA—not available Socialist Republics
d.—died GMT—Greenwich Mean Time oz—ounce(s) w—west
e—east GNP—gross national product
e—evening GRT—gross registered tons A fiscal split year is indicated by a stroke (e.g. 1998/99).
e.g.—exempli gratia ha—hectares For acronyms of UN agencies and their intergovernmental organiza-
(for example) i.e.—id est (that is) tions, as well as other abbreviations used in text, see the United Nations
ed.—edition, editor in—inch(es) volume.
est.—estimated kg—kilogram(s) A dollar sign ($) stands for us$ unless otherwise indicated.
et al.—et alii (and others) km—kilometer(s) Note that 1 billion = 1,000 million = 109.
vi
Asia_frnt_map.03 10/6/03 6:28 PM Page 1
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Kabul JAMMU C H I N A Xi'an Jakarta I N D O N E S I A
Zaranj Isla¯ma¯ba¯d KAASNHDMIR China INDIAN OCEAN Bandung JAVA Digul PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Saindak Sea Semarang
PAKISTAN Wuhan Bali
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GulfofOman Pasni Ind us New DeDlehlhii GangeNsEKPa¯tAhLma¯nduBHUTTAhLNihmaspahuDibrugarh Yangtze Fuzhou TT'aAiIpWaiAN 10° 100° 110° LesserSunSudmabaIslandKsupang Timor Sea130° Arafura Sea 140° Port Moresby 150° 10°
Lakhpat Hongshui
BANGLADESH Gengma Macau Hong 140° 160° 180° 160° 140°
INDIA Dhaka Bhamo (PORT.) Kong Midway Is.
Calcutta (US)
Surat Philippine
MYANMAR Haikou Tropic of Cancer
Arabian Chandrapur Akyab Hainan Sea NORTHERN Kauai Honolulu
10° Sea Krishna Boafy Yangon CSohuintha PHI ManiPlahilSiepapine AGnauTtgaRiunhoaiatanann SaipManARISIA.NA Bikini MIW(SAULaRSAk)SNeH DIA.SLL Johnston A(UtoSl)l OaHhauwaiMi aHISuALiAWNADIISA N(U.S.) 20°
Bangalore Bengal LI REPUBLIC Guam (US) Atoll PACIFIC OCEAN
Sea P OF
PI PALAU Truk Is.
Kokkilai BRUNEI NES Babelthuap Yap Is. Pohnepi Is. AArtnooll Palmyra Atoll (US)
Koror Palikir Kosrae Is. Majuro
Colombo SRI MALAYSIA FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA Howland I. Tabuaeran
0° LANKA NAURU TTaarraawwaa (US) Baker I. (US) Jarvis IK.iritimati Equator 0°
MALDIVES I N D O N E S I A Bismark Yaren (US)
New Guinea Sea
PAPUA-NEW SOLOMON TUVALU KIRIBATI
ISLANDS
Male GUINEA
Black Sea Port Santa Cruz Is. TOKELAU IS.
INDIAN Ankara Sinop AZERBAIJABaNku TSimeaor Moresby Honiara Funafuti WALLIS SAMOAApia Marquesas Is.
10° OCEAN M eSdeiaterraCnYeaPnRUNSicosTiaURSKYGREazIYiAantep CaSsepaian Mashdad Derby Darwin Cairns Coral Sea VANUATUPVorilta- VeFtIiJ IVLeaLvneuuvauSuvaFUTTOUNNGAA NASiuAMeMEROIACAN CoIso.k Tahiti 20°
BLeEBirAuNtON DamaIscRusAQ Tehra¯n Alice Springs CALNEDEWONIA Nuku'alofa IslandNs eawd mZeinailsatnedred by FRENCH POLYNESIA Tropic of Cancer
Jerusalem 'Amma¯n IRAN POLYNESIA
ISRAELJORDAN Baghda¯d Khorramshahr A U S T R A L I A Brisbane Norfolk Island Îles de Bass PISILTACNAIDRSN (U.K.)
Kuwait (AUSTRALIA)
20° Al A'sad KUBWAAHIRTAPIeNrsian Perth Yalata arling Lord Howe I. KIse.rmadec
S A UADRAI BRMiIyAaadnhamaDoGhulQafUA.AT.AEAR.bu DhabMiuscat CMauDnrbraeyrSryadney Tasman Sea Auckland North I. al Date Line
SharawArashh OMAN 20° SouthB Aaussintralian Tasmania ZENALEAWND Wellington nternaion 40°
Dawkah I
30° YEMEN Arabian INDIAN OCEAN Hobart South I.
S¸an'a¯ Sea Dunedin
60° 70° 80° 90° 60° 120° 140° 160°Stewart I. 180° 160° 140°
WEN11th.book Page 1 Friday, September 19, 2003 2:35 PM
A F G H A N I S T A N
Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan
Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan
CAPITAL: Kabul
FLAG: Three equal vertical bands of black (hoist), red, and green, with a white emblem centered on the
red band; the emblem features a temple-like structure encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by
a bold Islamic inscription above.
ANTHEM: Esllahte Arzi (Land Reform), beginning “So long as there is the earth and the heavens.”
MONETARY UNIT: The afghani (AF) is a paper currency of 100 puls. There are coins of 25 and 50 puls
and 1, 2, and 5 afghanis, and notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 afghanis. Af1 = $0.0211 (or $1
= AF47.3) as of May 2003.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, although some local units are still in
use.
HOLIDAYS: Now Rooz (New Year’s Day), 21 March; May Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 18 August.
Movable religious holidays include First Day of Ramadan, ‘Id al-Fitr, ‘Id al-‘Adha’, ‘Ashura, and Milad
an-Nabi. The Afghan calendar year begins on 21 March; the Afghan year 1376 began on 21 March
1997.
TIME: 4:30 PM = noon GMT.
1LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT (32°f); the maximum summer temperature in Jalalabad is about
46°c (115°f). There is much sunshine, and the air is usually clear
Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Central Asia with a long,
and dry. Rainfall averages about 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 in); pre-
narrow strip in the northeast (the Wakhan corridor). Afghanistan
cipitation occurs in winter and spring, most of it in the form of
is slightly smaller than the state of Texas, with a total area of
snow. Wind velocity is high, especially in the west.
647,500 sq km (250,001 sq mi), extending 1,240 km (770 mi)
ne–sw and 560 km (350 mi) se–nw. Afghanistan is bounded on 4FLORA AND FAUNA
the n by Turkenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, on the extreme
There are over 3,000 plant species, including hundreds of variet-
ne by China, on the e and s by Pakistan, and on the w by Iran,
ies of trees, shrubs, vines, flowers, and fungi. The country is par-
with a total boundary length of 5,529 km (3,436 mi). Afghani-
ticularly rich in such medicinal plants as rue, wormwood, and
stan’s capital city, Kabul, is located in the east central part of the
asafetida; fruit and nut trees are found in many areas. Native
country.
fauna include the fox, lynx, wild dog, bear, mongoose, shrew,
2TOPOGRAPHY hedgehog, hyena, jerboa, hare, and wild varieties of cats, asses,
mountain goats, and mountain sheep. Trout is the most common
Although the average altitude of Afghanistan is about 1,200 m fish. There are more than 100 species of wildfowl and birds.
(4,000 ft), the Hindu Kush mountain range rises to more than
6,100 m (20,000 ft) in the northern corner of the Wakhan pan- 5ENVIRONMENT
handle in the northeast and continues in a southwesterly direction
Afghanistan’s most significant ecological problems are deforesta-
for about 970 km (600 mi), dividing the northern provinces from
tion, drought, soil degradation, and overgrazing. Neglect,
the rest of the country. Central Afghanistan, a plateau with an
scorched earth tactics, and the damage caused by extensive bom-
average elevation of 1,800 m (6,000 ft), contains many small fer-
bardments have destroyed previously productive agricultural
tile valleys and provides excellent grazing for sheep, goats, and
areas, and more are threatened by tons of unexploded ordnance.
camels. To the north of the Hindu Kush and the central mountain
Afghanistan has responded to the fuel needs of its growing popu-
range, the altitude drops to about 460 m (1,500 ft), permitting
lation by cutting down many of its already sparse forests. Conse-
the growth of cotton, fruits, grains, ground nuts, and other crops.
quently, by late 2002, between 1 and 2% of Afghanistan’s land
Southwestern Afghanistan is a desert, hot in summer and cold in
area was forest land. That represented a 33% decrease from
winter. The four major river systems are the Amu Darya (Oxus)
1979. A four-year drought in 2002 emptied rivers and irrigation
in the north, flowing into the Aral Sea; the Harirud and Morghab
canals. Another environmental threat is posed by returning refu-
in the west; the Helmand in the southwest; and the Kabul in the
gees to Afghanistan, of which there were over 4 million in Paki-
east, flowing into the Indus. There are few lakes.
stan, Iran, and other countries in 2002, who have migrated to
Kabul and other larger cities instead of returning to destroyed vil-
3CLIMATE
lages and fields. This migration has placed stress on the infra-
The ranges in altitude produce a climate with both temperate and structure of those cities, causing increased pollution and
semitropical characteristics, and the seasons are clearly marked worsening sanitation conditions.
throughout the country. Wide temperature variations are usual By 2002, 11 species of mammals, 13 species of birds, and 4
from season to season and from day to night. Summer tempera- plant species of were endangered. Endangered species in Afghani-
tures in Kabul may range from 16°c (61°f) at sunrise to 38°c stan included the snow leopard, long-billed curlew, Argali sheep,
(100°f) by noon. The mean January temperature in Kabul is 0°c musk deer, tiger, white-headed duck, Afghani brook salamander,
1
WEN11th.book Page 2 Friday, September 19, 2003 2:35 PM
2 Afghanistan
Kabul markhor, and the Siberian white crane. There were thought ple were identified to fill key jobs in ministries and
to be fewer than 100 snow leopards in 2002. The country’s Cas- nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
pian tigers have virtually disappeared. In 2002, there was one
pair of Siberian white cranes, with one chick. 8ETHNIC GROUPS
About the middle of the second millennium bc, Indo-Aryans
6POPULATION began to move into and through the present area of Afghanistan.
The population of Afghanistan in 2003 was estimated by the Much later came other tribal groups from Central Asia—Pactyes
United Nations at 23,897,000, which placed it as number 46 in (from whom the present-day name “Pashtoons” derives), Sakas,
population among the 193 nations of the world. In that year Kushans, Hephthalites, and others—and a procession of Iranians
approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, and Greeks. In the 7th century ad, Arabs arrived from the south,
with another 43% of the population under 15 years of age. There spreading the new faith of Islam. In the same century, Turks
were 107 males for every 100 females in the country in 2003. moved in from the north, followed in the 13th century by Mon-
According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for gols, and, finally, in the 15th century by Turko-Mongols. This
2000–2005 is 3.88%, with the projected population for the year multiplicity of movements made Afghanistan a loose conglomera-
2015 at 35,473,000. The population density in 2002 was 42 per tion of racial and linguistic groups.
sq km (110 per sq mi). All citizens are called Afghans, but the Pashtoons (the name
It was estimated by the Population Reference Bureau that 22% may also be written as “Pushtun” or “Pukhtun,” and in Pakistan
of the population lived in urban areas in 2001. The capital city, as “Pathan”) are often referred to as the “true Afghans.” Num-
Kabul, had a population of 2,454,000 in that year. Other major bering about 38% of the population in 2001, they are known to
population centers include Kandaha¯r, 339,200; Maza¯r-e Sharif, have centered in the Sulaiman range to the east; it is only in recent
239,800; and Hera¯t, 166,600. According to the United Nations, centuries that they moved into eastern and southern Afghanistan,
the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 6.9%. where they now predominate. They have long been divided into
These figures are unreliable, however, because many city dwellers two major divisions, the Durranis and the Ghilzais, each with its
have left their urban homes for refuge in rural areas. Approxi- own tribes and subtribes.
mately 20% of the population is nomadic. The Tajiks, of Iranian stock, comprise nearly 25% of the popu-
Two decades of near constant warfare make Afghanistan’s lation and are mainly concentrated in the north and northeast. In
population—never certain in any case—even more difficult to the central ranges are found the Hazaras (about 19%), who are
assess. As many as three million Afghans are estimated to have said to have descended from the Mongols. To the north of the
died, and an additional six million sought refuge in Pakistan, Hindu Kush, Turkic and Turko-Mongol groups were in the
Iran, and elsewhere in the world during the worst of the fighting majority until 1940. Each of these groups is related to groups
when thousands of Soviet troops were present. The last official north of the Amu Darya and within the former USSR; among
census was taken in 1988. them are the Uzbeks, who number about 6% of the population.
Other groups include the Aimaks, Farsiwans (Persians) and Bra-
7MIGRATION hiu. In the northeast are the Kafirs, or infidels. After their conver-
Due to the U.S.-led bombing campaign in 2001–2002 carried out sion to Islam at the end of the 19th century, they were given the
against the Taliban regime, a large Afghan refugee population name of Nuristanis, or “people of the light.”
was created in surrounding countries. The Afghan refugee popu-
lation in Pakistan in 2002 was approximately 3.7 million, and, in 9LANGUAGES
Iran and the west, an additional 1.6 million. In 2002, there were Both Pashtu (or Pushtu) and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the official
approximately 1 million internally displaced persons (IDP) within languages of the country. Pashtu is spoken by about 35% of the
the country. Since early-2002, there were many spontaneous population while approximately 50% speak Dari. Although
returnees, but the UN High Commissioner for Refugees Pashtu has a literature of its own, Dari, the language spoken in
(UNHCR) began assisting refugees to repatriate in February Kabul, has been the principal language of cultural expression, of
2002. As of October, more than over 1.5 million had returned to the government, and of business. Both Pashtu and Dari are writ-
their homes. ten primarily with the Arabic alphabet, however, there are some
In mid-2002, there was a daily influx of homeless migrants modifications. The Hazaras speak their own dialect of Dari. The
into Kabul, approximately 300–400 families a day. Seventy per- Turkic languages, spoken by 11% of the population, include
cent of Kabul’s population was living in illegal structures. Uzbek and Turkmen, and the Nuristanis speak some seven differ-
In the summer of 2001, the majority of the over 1 million ent dialects belonging to the Dardic linguistic group. There are
internally displaced persons in Afghanistan had been driven off about 30 minor languages, primarily Balochi and Pashai, spoken
their land and into refugee camps by ongoing conflict and four by some 4% of the population. Balochi belongs to the same lin-
years of drought. After September 11, 2001, the International guistic group, as do several languages spoken in the high Pamirs.
Organization for Migration (IOM) began to deliver shelter and Bilingualism is common.
non-food supplies to help the IDPs survive the Afghan winter. It
dispatched road convoys from Iran, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan 10RELIGIONS
to destinations in Afghanistan, carrying blankets, winter clothing, Almost all Afghans are Muslims. Approximately 84% are Sunnis;
tents, and other essential items. Following the winter, with the 15% are Shi‘is; others comprise only 1%. The Pashtuns, most of
defeat of the Taliban and the beginning of the spring planting sea- the Tajiks, the Uzbeks, and the Turkmen are Sunnis, while the
son, the IOM worked to return the IDPs to their villages from the Hazaras are Shi‘is. The country’s small Hindu and Sikh popula-
refugee camps. The IDP families were offered wheat, seeds, blan- tion is estimated at less than 30,000. Before the 1978 Communist
kets, soap, agricultural tools, and other items. In addition to the coup, Islam was the official religion of Afghanistan; in an effort
IOM and the UNHCR, the International Committee of the Red to win over religious leaders, the Marxist regime set up a Depart-
Cross and UNICEF have been heavily involved in repatriating ref- ment of Islamic Affairs in 1981 and began providing funds for
ugees. new mosques and for the maintenance of old ones. Following the
Underway in the country is also the Return of Qualified overthrow of the Communist regime, an Islamic State was again
Afghans program, designed to bring back Afghan professionals proclaimed.
living abroad to participate in rebuilding the country. The pro- In 1994 the Islamic militants who called themselves the Tali-
gram had returned 227 people by mid-2002. A further 343 peo- ban—literally “the Seekers,” a term used to describe religious stu-
WEN11th.book Page 3 Friday, September 19, 2003 2:35 PM
Afghanistan 3
KYRGYZSTAN
AFGHANISTAN
CHINA
0 50 100 150 Miles
T A J I K I S T A N
U Z B E K I S T A N
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Towraghondi Morgh¯ab Cha¯r¯ikar Asma¯r W E
Tayyeb¯at PHAerRa¯Ot PAMISUS MTS. Ku¯1h6-5e,1 8F34u¯57la ¯ mfdt¯..i Kabul Kabul Konar S
Hariru¯d Chaghchara¯n Kowt-e Jala¯l¯ab¯ad Peshawar
'Ashrow
Khyber
Baraki Pass
Shindand Far¯ah Helmand Ghazn¯i KhGoawrsdte¯yz Isla¯ma¯ba¯d
Zareh
Sharan
Fara¯h
H¯am¯un-e Arghand¯ab Qala¯t
S¸ab¯er¯i
Lashkar Qandaha¯r
Zaranj G¯ah
Z¯abol
Khojak
R¯igesta¯n
Pass P A K I S T A N Afghanistan
Helmand Desert
Quetta
Gowd-e Zereh
Chagai Hills
LOCATION: 29°28′ to 38°30′ N; 60°30′ to 74°53′ E. BOUNDARY LENGTHS: China, 76 kilometers (47 miles); Iran, 936 kilometers (582 miles); Pakistan, 2,430 kilometers
(1,511 miles); Tajikistan, 1,206 kilometers (750 miles); Turkmenistan, 744 kilometers (463 miles); Uzbekistan, 137 kilometers (85 miles).
dents—began to impose their strict form of Islam observance in ation for non-Muslims has been granted, according to the 1964
the areas that they controlled. The Taliban, composed mostly of constitution and the 2001 Bonn Agreement.
Pashtoons, were puritanical zealots. Women were ordered to
dress in strict Islamic garb and were banned from working or 11TRANSPORTATION
from going out of their houses unless accompanied by a male rel- Many roads were built in the years prior to 1979 to connect the
ative. Some men were forced to pray five times a day and grow principal cities and to open up formerly isolated areas. As of
full beards as a condition of employment in the government. 2002, Afghanistan had an estimated 21,000 km (13,000 mi) of
Under the Taliban, repression of the Hazara ethnic group, who roads, of which 2,793 km (1,736 mi) were paved. Roads connect
were predominantly Shi’is, was severe. Kabul with most provincial capitals and with Peshawar in Paki-
stan through the Khyber Pass. The road from Herat to Mashhad
Since the fall of the Taliban in 2001, the 1964 constitution has
in Iran was completed in 1971. The Salang Tunnel through the
been used as a basis for the definition of religious freedom and Hindu Kush, completed with Soviet assistance in 1964, consider-
practices. The 1964 constitution proclaims Islam the "sacred reli- ably shortened the travel time between Kabul and northern
gion of Afghanistan" and states that religious rites of the state Afghanistan. The tunnel was modernized in the mid-1980s. How-
shall be performed according to Hanafi doctrine. Religious toler- ever, in May 1997 the Tajik leader, Ahmad Shah Masud, blew up
