Table Of ContentWithin-person variation in personality and psychological
well-being
By
Jamie Churchyard
Submitted to the University of Hertfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
degree of Doctorate in philosophy (PhD). Submitted November 2013.
I
Abstract
Personality is one of the most broad and complex areas in psychology. This has led to many
researchers attempting to reduce this complexity by focusing solely on how habitual
personality differs between each individual (inter-individual differences). This is important to
study, but it has been focused on so heavily that research into how each individual personality
varies within the person (intra-individual differences) has been neglected in comparison.
Recent research has started to examine intra-individual variation in personality more
thoroughly. One research aim of this programme was to establish the nature of several
different types of within person variability including inter-item variation (variation within the
test responses for a personality trait), and cross-contextual variation in personality (variation
according to context), to see whether these types of variability are associated with
psychological outcomes. Three research questions were examined to this end:
1) What is the extent of meaningful variability in personality trait test responding?
2) What are the predictors of intra-individual variability in personality?
3) What is the relative importance of the person and situational factors in personality
variability?
The first question was developed to try and determine whether the individual can display
meaningful inter-item variation in ratings of specific behaviours within personality trait
measures. Trait questionnaires are usually only analysed at the between subject level, and
within subject variation in inter-item ratings have not been extensively examined in relation
to meaningful psychological outcomes. The second and third questions were developed to
look into the nature of cross-contextual personality, and establish whether within person
personality differences are influenced more strongly by the person or situation. The studies
conducted towards answering these questions demonstrated a person-based capacity to
II
display intra-individual variability. A second aim of the research programme was to see
whether the capacity to display these types of variability can be utilised in behaviour change.
The fourth research question was developed to try and understand how a person can display
intra-individual variability, yet still be resistant to changing negative habits:
4) How do the different aspects in personality variability help explain why some people are
resistant to change, especially with regard to behaviours that are bad for them?
This question was answered by theoretically discussing the findings from the three previous
studies which proposed that positive or problematic behaviour could be interpreted with a
simple path to understand the process of behavioural action:
The individual receives feedback from a behaviour response which either validates or
invalidates their action in the situation context (does or does not receive a desired outcome).
Reinforcement of the behaviour happens if it is validated by positive feedback. Alternately
reconstruction of the situation happens if the behaviour is invalidated. This allows for two
types of intra-individual variability. One is flexibility in behaviour responses to different
situations under the individual’s control. The other is change according to the situation,
where the behaviour is invalidated and an alternative is attempted. A problematic behaviour
may have benefit in stopping something invalidating, but if repeated it may become a habit
needed for psychological functioning. As part of the second research aim a behaviour change
strategy was developed and piloted to try and bring the individual closer to their construct of
the ideal self. Instructions were provided for the individual to experiment with that differed
from their disposition. The programmes had varied degrees of success depending on the
participant. The implications for personality research and behaviour change are discussed.
III
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professors Ben (C) Fletcher and Karen Pine, for giving me the
opportunity to conduct this research programme. They have both helped me throughout, from
funding applications to having the patience to read through and help refine the many draft
versions of papers I sent. Without their support, none of this would have been possible.
Thanks also to Dr Shivani Sharma, for providing good recruitment advice, and opportunities
in the department.
A big thank you to anyone who participated in my research, I am really grateful you took the
time to help me out.
Thanks to all the friends I have made at during my PhD at UH for the good times. Although
particular credit has to go to Neil Howlett, for entertaining banter, beers and being a great
sounding board. Also to Nuriye Kupeli, for being along for the ride, from the Masters days to
the last gasp of the PhD, and for regularly listening to me complain.
Finally, a massive thank you to my mum and dad, for always supporting me throughout my
studies, and accepting the choices I have made. I know becoming a psychologist probably
was not the first career choice you had in mind...
IV
Contents:
Abstract II
Acknowledgements IV
Index of tables XII
Index of figures XIV
Glossary of terms XVI
Preface XVIII
Chapter 1: A brief history of personality research, and why intra-individual variability
is important to study. 1
Nomothetic and Idiographic approaches to personality research 4
Nomothetic personality questionnaire development 4
Idiographic methods of examining personality 9
The Self-other report relationship 12
How is all this important to the topic of intra-individual personality variability or change 15
Framework for internal transformation (FIT) science 20
The cognitive and affective personality system (CAPS) theory 21
The research questions 24
V
Chapter 2: Personality traits and meaningful variation within trait questionnaire
responding. 27
Literature review
Traditional trait personality theories 28
Broad traits and narrow facets as predictors of behaviour acts and outcomes 32
Self perceived variation in behaviour 36
Trait personality and situational context 41
Trait relevant behaviours and dispositions in relation to situation context 41
The frame of reference effect in trait questionnaires 44
Traitedness and Metatraits 47
An accommodating theory for the literature reviewed so far 52
Study 1: Same traits, different variance: Within subject variation in personality trait
measures 56
Introduction 56
Method 60
Results 65
Discussion 86
Chapter summary 91
VI
Chapter 3: Understanding the processes and predictors of intra-individual variability in
personality. 92
Literature review
Modern behaviour formation research 93
Reinforcement sensitivity theory 95
Regulatory modes: Locomotion and assessment 98
Self-regulatory strength and ego depletion 100
Diary studies of personality states 102
Study 2: Intra-individual variation in HEXACO personality states as predicted by context 111
Introduction 111
Method 114
Results 118
Discussion 139
Chapter summary 145
Chapter 4: The relative importance of the person compared to the situation in intra-
individual variability. 146
Literature review
Personal construct theory (PCT) 148
Behaviour as an experiment – the PCT view on behaviour performance 148
Triadic elicitation procedure 150
Pyramiding and laddering 152
Cognitive complexity indices derived from the repertory grid 154
VII
The role of emotion in personal construct theory 158
The self across contexts as measured using the repertory grid 160
The construing of couples and experimentally created pairings using the repertory grid 162
Combined idiographic personal construct and nomothetic trait repertory grid studies 166
Bringing PCT research together with previous processing research 167
Study 3: A personal construct study of intra-individual variation: Person and situation
influences. 168
Introduction 168
Method 171
Results 175
Discussion 192
Chapter summary 201
Chapter 5: Do personality variation and behavioural flexibility reduce resistance to
change in habit? 202
Integrating research so far 202
The advantages of displaying a varied personality 207
The importance of engagement rather than withdrawing 208
Use of engagement in modern behaviour change strategies 210
Chapter summary 219
VIII
Chapter 6: Giving a practical application to the findings of this research programme.
220
Tools and techniques to be applied 221
The Repertory Grid 221
The Flex list of behaviours 223
Study 4: Piloting a strategy to beneficially change an individual’s view of themselves, and
acknowledge the capacity to be behaviourally flexible. 224
Introduction 224
Method 226
Results 241
Discussion 263
Chapter summary 270
Chapter 7: The implications of this research programme. 271
Understanding the main strengths and limitations of this research programme 271
Implications of these findings for personality research 274
Implications of these findings for behaviour change 279
Closing statement 283
References 284
IX
Appendices 321
A. IPIP-HEXACO questionnaire (developed by Ashton, Lee and Goldberg, 2007). 322
B. Self-Pluralism scale (developed/published by Altrochhi & McReynolds, 1997;
McReynolds, Altrochhi & House, 2000). 330
C. Thoughts and Feelings scale (developed by Fletcher and Stead, 2000). 332
D. Satisfaction with Life scale (developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen and Griffin, 1985).
333
E. Twelve contextual life satisfaction items included in addition to the Satisfaction with Life
scale (developed by the researcher). 333
F. Three items reflecting tendency towards habitual behaviour (developed by the researcher).
333
G. A short adjective based measure of the six HEXACO traits for use in the diary study
(developed by the researcher). 334
H. Categorical indicators of current interpersonal role or social goal orientation in the
moment for use in the diary study (developed by the researcher). 336
I. The role titles and repertory rating grid administered during study 3 (as part of chapter 4,
developed by the researcher). Supplied construct grid example. 337
J. Behavioural Flexibility scale (developed by Fletcher and Stead, 2000).
338
K. The role titles and repertory grid administered during study 4 (as part of chapter 5,
developed by the researcher). Supplied construct grid example. 343
L. Habit Rater items (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 344
M. Behaviour Rater (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 345
N. Coping statements (developed by Fletcher and Pine, 2012). 346
O. The information sheet, consent form and debriefing sheet for study 4. 347
P. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 1. 352
Q. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 2. 360
R. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 3. 365
S. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 4. 372
T. Repertory grid interpretation and programme design: Participant 5. 378
X
