Table Of ContentWorld Scientific Series in Current Energy Issues Volume 7
Wind, Water and Fire
The Other Renewable Energy Resources
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World Scientific Series in Current Energy Issues
Series Editor: Gerard M Crawley (University of South Carolina & Marcus Enterprise
LLC, USA)
Published
Vol. 7 Wind, Water and Fire: The Other Renewable Energy Resources
edited by Gerard M Crawley
Vol. 6 Energy Efficiency
Innovations: Driving Prosperity, Slashing Emissions
edited by Henry Kelly
Vol. 5 Critical Materials: Underlying Causes and Sustainable Mitigation
Strategies
edited by S Erik Offerman
Vol. 4 Energy Storage
edited by Gerard M Crawley
Vol. 3 Energy from the Nucleus: The Science and Engineering of
Fission and Fusion
edited by Gerard M Crawley
Vol. 2 Solar Energy
edited by Gerard M Crawley
Vol. 1 Fossil Fuels: Current Status and Future Directions
edited by Gerard M Crawley
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World Scientific Series in Current Energy Issues Volume 7
Wind, Water and Fire
The Other Renewable Energy Resources
Editor
Gerard M Crawley
Marcus Enterprises LLC, USA
World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Crawley, Gerard M., editor.
Title: Wind, water and fire : the other renewable energy resources / editor, Gerard M. Crawley,
Marcus Enterprises LLC, USA.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2021] | Series: World scientific series in current energy
issues, 2425-0163 ; Vol. 7 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020038664 (print) | LCCN 2020038665 (ebook) |
ISBN 9789811225918 (hardcover) | ISBN 9789811225925 (ebook) |
ISBN 9789811225932 (ebook other)
Subjects: LCSH: Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TJ808 .W57 2021 (print) | LCC TJ808 (ebook) | DDC 333.79/4--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020038664
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020038665
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(cid:2)c 2021 World Scientific Publishing Company
https://doi.org/10.1142/9789811225925 fmatter
Foreword to the World Scientific Series
on Current Energy Issues
Sometimebetweenfourhundredthousandandamillionyearsago,anearly
humanoid species developed the mastery of fire and changed the course of
our planet. But, asrecently asa few hundredyearsago,the energysources
available to the human race remained surprisingly limited. In fact, until
the early nineteenth century, the main energy sources for humanity were
biomass (from crops and trees), their domesticated animals and their own
efforts.
Even after many millennia, the average per capita energy use in 1830
only reached about 20 Gigajoulesa (GJ) per year. By 2010, however, this
numberhadincreaseddramaticallytoabout80GJperyear.1Onereasonfor
thisnotableshiftinenergyuseisthatthenumberofpossibleenergysources
increased substantially during this period, starting with coal in about the
1850sandthensuccessivelyaddingoilandnaturalgas.Bythemiddleofthe
twentieth century, hydropower and nuclear fission were added to the mix.
As we move into the twenty-first century, there has been a steady increase
in other forms of energy such as wind and solar, although presently they
represent a relatively small fraction of world energy use.
Despite the rise of a variety of energy sources, per capita energy use
is not uniform around the world. There are enormous differences from
country to country, pointing to a large disparity in wealth and oppor-
tunity (See Table 1). For example, in the United States the per capita
energy use per year in 2017 was 301.2 million Btu2 (MMBtu) and in
Germany,169.5MMBtu.InChina,however,percapitaenergyusewasonly
aNote1GJ=0.947MMBtu.
v
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vi Foreword to the World Scientific Serieson Current Energy Issues
Table1. PrimaryEnergyUsepercapitainmillionBtu(MMBtu).2
2007 2017 Percentage
Country (MMBtu) (MMBtu) Change
Canada 416.1 411.7 −1.1%
UnitedStates 336.9 301.2 −10.6%
Brazil 52.7 60.4 +14.6%
France 175.7 154.1 −12.3%
Germany 167.8 169.5 +1.0%
Russia 204.0 275.6 +35.1%
Nigeria 6.1 8.1 +32.8%
Egypt 36.4 41.6 +14.3%
China 57.1 138.7 +142.9%
India 17.0 22.7 +33.5%
World 72.2 77.3 +7.1%
57.1MMBtuin2007,butgrewdramaticallyto138.7MMBtuin2017.India
also saw a significant increase in per capita energy use from 2007 to 2017
of 33.5%. The general trends over the last decade suggest that countries
with developed economies generally show modest increases or even small
decreases in energy use, but that many developing economies, particularly
China and India, are experiencing rapidly increasing energy consumption
per capita.
Thesechanges,bothinthekindofenergyresourceusedandthegrowth
of energy use in countries with developing economies, will have enormous
effects in the near future, both economically and politically, as greater
numbers of people compete for limited energy resources at a viable price.
A growing demand for energy will have an impact on the distribution of
other limited resources such as food and fresh water as well. All this leads
to the conclusion that energy will be a pressing issue for the future of
humanity.
All energy sources have disadvantages as well as advantages, risks as
well asopportunities, both in the productionofthe resourceandin its dis-
tribution and ultimate use. Coal, the oldest of the “new” energy sources,
is still used extensively to produce electricity, despite its potential envi-
ronmental and safety concerns in both underground and open cut mining.
Burning coal releases sulfur and nitrogen oxides which in turn can lead
to acid rain and a cascade of detrimental consequences. Coal production
requires careful regulation and oversight to allow it to be used safely and
withoutdamagingtheenvironment.Evenaresourcelikewindenergy,which
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Foreword tothe World Scientific Serieson Current Energy Issues vii
useslargewindturbines,hasitscriticsbecauseofthepotentialforbirdkill
and noise pollution. Some critics also find largewind turbines an unsightly
addition to the landscape, particularly when the wind farms are erected
in pristine environments. Energy from nuclear fission, originally believed
to be “too cheap to meter”3 has not had the growth predicted because
of the problem with long-term storage of the waste from nuclear reactors
and because of the public perception regarding the danger of catastrophic
accidentssuchashappenedatChernobylin1986andatFukushimain2011.
Even more recently, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
hassteadilyincreasedandisnowgreaterthan400partspermillion(ppm).4
The amount of another gas, methane (CH4), in the atmosphere is also
increasinganditisanevenmorepotentgreenhousegasthanCO2.Methane
isoftenreleasedaspartoftheextractionofoil.Theincreaseofthesegreen-
house gases has raisedconcerns in the scientific community about the con-
tinued use of fossil fuels and has led the majority of climate scientists to
conclude5 that this will result in a significant increase in global tempera-
tures. We will see a rise in ocean temperature, acidity and sea level, all of
which will have a profound impact on human life ands ecosystems around
the world. Relying primarily on fossil fuels into the future may therefore
prove precarious, since burning coal, oil and natural gas will necessarily
increase CO2 levels. Certainly, for the long term, adopting a variety of
alternativeenergy sourceswhichdo notproduce CO2 norreleasemethane,
seems to be our best strategy.
In addition, we should consider ways to use energy more efficiently,
including better insulationofourbuildings, moreenergyefficientmanufac-
turing and much more energy-efficient modes of transportation. As noted
in Table 1, there remains as much as a factor of two in energy use per
capita even among developed economies. As energy becomes more expen-
sive in the future, this will undoubtedly provide additional incentives for
more efficient energy use.
The volumes in the World Scientific Series on Current Energy Issues
explore different energy resources and issues related to the use of energy.
The volumes are intended to be comprehensive, accurate, current and
include an international perspective. The authors of the various chapters
are experts in their respective fields and provide reliable information that
canbe useful to scientists andengineers,but alsoto policy makersandthe
generalpublic interestedinlearningaboutthe essentialconceptsrelatedto
energy.Thevolumeswilldealwiththetechnicalaspectsofenergyquestions,
butwillalsoincluderelevantdiscussionabouteconomicandpolicymatters.
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viii Foreword tothe World ScientificSerieson Current Energy Issues
The goal of the series is not polemical, but rather is intended to provide
informationthatwillallowthe readertoreachconclusionsbasedonsound,
scientific data.
The role of energy in our future is critical and will become increas-
ingly urgent as the world’s population increases and the global demand
for energy turns ever upwards. Questions such as which energy sources to
develop,howtostoreenergyandhowtomanagetheenvironmentalimpact
of energy use will take centerstage in our future. The distribution and cost
ofenergywill havepowerful politicalandeconomicconsequencesandmust
also be addressed. How the world deals with these questions will make a
crucialdifferencetothefutureoftheEarthanditsinhabitants.Carefulcon-
sideration of our energy use today will have lasting effects for tomorrow.
We intend that the World Scientific Series on Current Energy Issues will
make a valuable contribution to this discussion.
References
1. Our Finite World: World energy consumption since 1820 in charts. March
2012.AccessedinFebruary2015athttp://ourfiniteworld.com/2012/03/12/w
orld-energy-consumption-since-1820-in-charts/
2. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Independent Statistics & Analy-
sis. Accessed in February 2020 at http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/
iedindex3.cfm?tid=44&pid=45&aid=2&cid=regions&syid=2005&eyid=2011
&unit=MBTUPP
3. www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1613/ML1613A120.pdf.RemarkspreparedbyLewisL.
Strauss,Chairman,USAtomicEnergyCommission,16thSep,1954.Accessed
inFebruary2020. ThereissomedebateastowhetherStraussactuallymeant
energy from nuclear fission or not.
4. NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Trends in Atmospheric Carbon
Dioxide. Accessed in March 2015 at http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/tr
ends/
5. IPCC, IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change, Fifth Assessment report
2014. Accessed in March 2015 at http://www.ipcc.ch/
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https://doi.org/10.1142/9789811225925 fmatter
Contents
Foreword to the World Scientific Series on Current Energy Issues v
Chapter 1. Wind Energy Development: History and
Current Status 1
Li Zhang
1 Wind Energy: Nature and Origin of Development . . . . . . 1
2 Current Status of Wind Converter Development WorldWide 2
2.1 Onshore wind plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Offshore wind plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 2. Electricity Generation by Wind Energy 7
Li Zhang
1 Part 1: Power and Energy Basis of Wind Converters . . . . 7
1.1 Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Power extractable from the airstream . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Practical extractable power and power
coefficient Cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Tip-speed ratio (TSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Forces on turbine blades and control . . . . . . 13
1.2.3.1 Drag force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.3.2 Lift force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2.4 Determination of CP as function of λ and blade
pitch angle β . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Wind turbine power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Turbine power control at different wind speeds . 17
1.3.1.1 Cut-in speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ix
