Table Of ContentWilliam of Ockham’s Early Theory of Property
Rights: Sources, Texts, and Contexts
by
Jonathan William Robinson
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Medieval Studies
University of Toronto
© Copyright by Jonathan William Robinson ()
ABSTRACT
William of Ockham’s Early Theory of Property Rights: Sources, Texts,
and Contexts
Jonathan William Robinson Doctor of Philosophy,
Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto
This dissertation examines William of Ockham’s theory of property rights in the Opus
nonaginta dierum () in the context of the other major Michaelist texts of the period.
A corollary of the project is to examine to what extent Ockham, a theologian with no
formal training in law, was able to exploit the resources of Roman and canon law to
justify his theory of property rights.
The first chapter outlines general methodological concerns. The second chapter
describes John XXII’s theory of property rights as it can be found in his major bulls of the
s. The subsequent chapters adopt a thematic approach. Chapters three through five
analyse in turn the concepts of ius, dominium, and usus, which are hierarchically related
concepts in the Michaelist texts. Chapter three examines ius in traditional legal discourse
in order to provide a framework for understanding how the Michaelists employed the term;
both the issue of positive and natural rights and the interaction of divine, natural, and
positive law are examined. Chapter four examines dominium, here primarily understood
as proprietary lordship, as it is justified in divine, natural, and positive law; the Franciscan
position on the origin of private property also becomes clear. The fifth chapter deals
with the Franciscan argument that usus must be understood not only in a legal sense.
Franciscan use, they argue, is a rightless and legally indefensible sort of use because it
lacks a connection to ius. The sixth chapter explores how the Michaelists explained that
one may justly use something that is consumed through use without ever holding property
rights over it, while the seventh explores the Franciscan theory of corporate rights in the
face of Innocent IV’s and John XXII’s arguments about the supposedly fictive personality
of corporations.
ii
Abstract
A concluding chapter and three appendices round out the dissertation. The first
appendix illustrates how Michael of Cesena adapted Bonaventure’s theory of a ‘fourfold
community of temporal things’. The second compares the structural interrelationship of
the Michaelist texts. The final appendix tabulates Ockham’s use of canon and Roman
law with respect to the writings of the pope and the other Michaelists.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It gives me great pleasure to give thanks to all the people who have made this thesis
possible. The Centre for Medieval Studies boasts a surprisingly large number of talented
medievalists, and I had the good fortune to take part in a few foreign language reading
groups over the years with several of them, including especially: Tim Budde, Ryan
Greenwood, Magda Hayton, Andrew Hicks, Matthew McCabe, Jess Paehlke, and Gur
Zak. Ryan and Jess suffered most at my hands, and so they deserve special thanks for
reading so many items pertaining to the problems of mendicant poverty. My dissertation
committee also gave me encouraging advice and criticism, often at crucial times in the
writing process, and they were instrumental, I’m sure, in helping me obtain the financial
support of a Canadian Graduate Scholarship from the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada (–) and an Ontario Graduate Scholarship (–),
which significantly eased many of the financial difficulties most graduate students face
these days. I am happy to thank both SSHRC and the Ontario Student Assistance
Program for their support.
My parents have always demanded that my brothers and I pursue careers that will
make us happy, and although studying medieval intellectual history may seem an odd
choice, they never doubted that I made the right choice. Their unfailing faith in my
abilities often kept me afloat, and, each in their own way, they gave me a lofty goal to
aspire to.
And, of course, Kim has shared every step of this rocky road. My life has been
enriched by her presence and this thesis may never have been written without her help
and support. It is to her that I dedicate this—finished!—work.
iv
CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iv
Contents v
List of Figures viii
List of Tables viii
Abbreviations ix
Chronology of the Principal Texts & Events xii
Introduction
The Position of John XXII
. From Suppression to Condemnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. John’s Early Account of Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. John Re-acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. John and the Types of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Origin of Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Legal Nature of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Fact or Use of Right? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Just Use is Licit Use is Using by Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Summary of John’s Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Varieties of Ius
. Ius and the Jurists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roman Law & Two Glossators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gratian & the Decretists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Bonagratia of Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael of Cesena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius as Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius as Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis of Marchia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius as Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius as Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. William of Ockham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius as Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
Contents vi
Ius as Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nature of Dominium
. Bonagratia of Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael of Cesena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium diuinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium humanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium and the Early Community of Believers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis of Marchia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium diuinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium humanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium and the Early Community of Believers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. William of Ockham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium diuinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium humanum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dominium and the Early Community of Believers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Species of Usus
. Bonagratia of Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael of Cesena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus iuris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Licentia utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus facti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis of Marchia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus iuris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Licentia utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus facti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. William of Ockham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus iuris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ius utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Licentia utendi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Usus facti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consumables
. Bonagratia of Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael of Cesena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Ab-)Using Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vanishing Dominium of Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Must Licit Use Be Just? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis of Marchia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents vii
(Ab)Using Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vanishing Dominium of Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Must Licit Use Be Just? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. William of Ockham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Ab)Using Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Vanishing Dominium of Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Must Licit Use Be Just? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corporate Poverty
. Origins of Corporate Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Innocent IV & Corporation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ordinem uestrum reconsidered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Bonagratia of Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael of Cesena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis of Marchia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. William of Ockham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion
. Summary of Michaelist Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Legal Catenae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A The Fourfold Community of Goods: Bonaventure and Michael
B A Structural Analysis of the Michaelist Tracts
C A Comparison of Legal References
Bibliography
LIST OF FIGURES
. Relationship of Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Michael on the types of usus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Francis on the types of usus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Ockham on the types of usus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES
. Poverty in the Early Church and Medieval Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Structual Analysis of Michaelist Tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Table of Canon Law References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Table of Roman Law References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viii
ABBREVIATIONS
Please note that all medieval texts with their own divisions will be cited accordingly
(from largest to smallest), including line numbers where possible, followed by a reference
to the volume (if any) and page(s) of the modern edition. The only exception to this
are Ockham’s Opera politica, which, owing to their frequency in the notes, will be cited
without constant reference to the volume they appear in (I provide that information here).
For the Vulgate I use Weber et al. ().
Texts & Collections
opp. Nicholas of Freising(?), Tres oppositiones contra appellationem Michaelis
earumque refutationes, in G&F, –
ACC1 John XXII, Ad conditorem canonum, redactio prima (= Ad conditorem),
ed. in G&F, –
ACC2 John XXII, Ad conditorem canonum, redactio secunda (= Ad conditorem),
ed. in Tarrant ; cited by line and page number(s)
AF Analecta Franciscana: sive, Chronica aliaque varia documenta ad historiam
Fratrum Minorum spectantia edita a Patribus Collegii S. Bonaventurae
adiuvantibus aliis eruditis viris, vols., –
Alleg. Henry of Thalheim, Francis of Marchia, William of Ockham, and Bonagratia
of Bergamo, Allegationes religiosorum uirorum, in G&F, –
AP William of Ockham, An princeps pro suo succursu, scilicet guerrae, possit
recipere bona ecclesiarum, etiam invito papa, ed. in OPol .–
Ap.paup. Bonaventure, Apologia pauperum contra calumniatorem, ed. in BOO, .–
.
App.mai. Michael of Cesena, Appellatio in forma maiore, ed. in G&F, –
App.min. Michael of Cesena, Appellatio in forma minori, ed. in G&F, –
App.mon. Michael of Cesena, Appellatio ... contra libellum papae ‘Quia vir reprobus’,
in G&F, –; also referred to as the Appellatio monacensis
App.Sachs. ‘Louis of Bavaria’, Appellatio de Sachsenhausen, in G&F, –
BF Bullarium franciscanum, vols., ed. in Sbaralea and Eubel –
BOO Bonaventure, Opera omnia edita studio et cura PP. Collegii a S. Bonaven-
tura, vols., –
Brev. William of Ockham, Breviloquium, in OPol .–
CB William of Ockham, Tractatus contra Benedictum, ed. in OP .–
CE William of Ockham, Compendium errorum Ioannis Papae XXII, ed. in OP
.–
CI William of Ockham, Tractatus contra Ioannem, ed. in OP .–
CIN John XXII, Cum inter nonnullos, ed. in Tarrant ; cited by line and
page number(s)
Comm. Innocent IV, Commentaria in V libros Decretalium, ed. in Innocent IV
Abbreviations x
Connex. William of Ockham, De connexione virtutum, ed. in OTh .–
De paup. Tractatus de Christi et apostolorum paupertate, written for John XXII by
various authors:
— Bonagratia of Bergamo, ed. in Oliger
— Durandus of St-Pourçain, ed. in Miethke
— Hervaeus Natalis, ed. in Sikes –
Dial. William of Ockham, Dialogus, ed. in Kilcullen et al. – (in progress).
References to the ‘part’ and ‘tract’ precede the Dial. while ‘book’ and
‘chapter’ follow it. (Cross-references are to Ockham .)
Dilectissimis C. q. c. of Gratian’s Decretum
Epist. William of Ockham, Epistola ad fratres minores, in OPol .–
Exiit Exiit qui seminat (= VI ..); a bull of Nicholas III (due to its length, a
reference to Friedberg – is provided)
Exivi Exivi de paradiso (= Clem. ..); a bull of Clement V (due to its length,
a reference to Friedberg – is provided)
Expositio Expositio Hugonis de Digna super regulam fratrum minorum, ed. in Flood
FA:ED Francis of Assisi: Early Documents, vols., ed. in Armstrong, Hellmann,
and Short –
FF Fontes franciscani, ed. in Menestò et al.
G&F Gál and Flood (= Nicolaus Minorita: Chronica)
Historia Angelo Clareno, Historia septem tribulationum ordinis minorum, ed. in
Rossini
Improbatio Francis of Marchia, Improbatio contra libellum domini Iohannis qui incipit
“Quia vir reprobus”, ed. in Mariani
Impug. William of Ockham(?), Impugnatio constitutionum papae Iohannis, ed. in
Knysh
IPP William of Ockham, De imperatorum et pontificum potestate, ed. in OP
.–
OND William of Ockham, Opus nonaginta dierum, ed. in OPol .– (Chap-
ters –), and OPol .– (Chapters –)
OPh William of Ockham, Opera philosophica, vols., ed. in Gál et al. –
OPol William of Ockham, Opera politica, vols., ed. in Offler et al. –
OQ William of Ockham, Octo quaestiones de potestate papae, ed. in OP .–
OTh William of Ockham, Opera theologica, vols., ed. in Gál et al. –
QE John XXII, Quorundam exigit, ed. in Tarrant ; cited by line and page
number(s)
QN John XXII, Quia nonnunquam, ed. in Tarrant ; cited by line and page
number(s)
QPE Peter of John Olivi, Quaestiones de perfectione evangelica, ed. in Schlageter
QQM John XXII, Quia quorundam mentes, ed. in Tarrant ; cited by line and
page number(s)
Quodl. William of Ockham, Quodlibeta septem, in OTh
Quo iure D. c. of Gratian’s Decretum
