Table Of ContentWhisky
Technology, Production and Marketing
Elsevier, 2003
Edited by: Inge Russell, Graham Stewart, Charlie Bamforth and Inge Russell
ISBN: 978-0-12-669202-0
Series editors, Page ix
Contributors, Pages xi-xiii
Foreword, Page xv, Alan G. Rutherford
Preface, Pages xvii-xviii, Inge Russell
Chapter 1 - History of the development of whiskey distillation, Pages 1-24,
George N. Bathgate
Chapter 2 - Malt whiskies: Raw materials and processing, Pages 27-73, Timothy
C.S. Dolan
Chapter 3 - Grain whisky: Raw materials and processing, Pages 75-112, Tom A.
Bringhurst, Anne L. Broadhead and James Brosnan
Chapter 4 - Yeast and fermentation, Pages 115-150, Iain Campbell
Chapter 5 - Batch distillation, Pages 153-176, Denis Arthur Nicol
Chapter 6 - Grain whisky distillation, Pages 179-206, Iain Campbell
Chapter 7 - Maturation and blending, Pages 209-240, John Conner, Ken Reid and
Frances Jack
Chapter 8 - Co-products, Pages 243-272, Bob Pass and Ian Lambert
Chapter 9 - Whisky analysis, Pages 275-306, Ross Aylott
Chapter 10 - Marketing Scotch whisky, Pages 309-349, Grant E. Gordon
Series editors
Graham Stewart PhD DSc FIBrew FIBiol is currently the Director of the
International Centre for Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, Scotland. He previously held the position of
Technical Director responsible for Research and Quality Control at Labatt
Brewing Company, Canada. He is the author of numerous books and papers
as well as co-editor of Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.
Charlie Bamforth PhD DSc FIBrew FIBiol is currently the Anheuser–Busch
Endowed Professor of Malting and Brewing Sciences at the University of
California, Davis. He has held positions as Director of Research for Brewing
Research International in the UK and as Research and Quality Assurance
manager for Bass Breweries. He is the author of numerous books and papers
aswellasbeingtheEditor-in-ChiefofJournaloftheAmericanSocietyofBrewing
Chemists.
IngeRussellPhDDScFIBrewFIBiolistheEditor-in-ChiefoftheJournalofthe
Institute of Brewing and is visiting professor at Heriot-Watt University,
Edinburgh, Scotland and an adjunct professor in the Department of
Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, Canada. She has
over 30 years experience in the fermentation industry as a research scientist
and later of directing Research and Development for Labatt Brewing
Company, Canada. She is the author of numerous books and papers as well
as co-editor of Critical Reviews in Biotechnology.
ix
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:9 1-18
Contributors
Ross Aylott BSc CChem FRSC
His post-graduate life started in packaging research and development, and
contract research. He has over 20 years experience with Diageo and its pre-
decessors,workingonprocess,qualityandanalytical aspectsofdistilledspir-
its.Currentlyactiveinriskmanagementandbrandprotection,particularlythe
brand andgenericauthenticity ofScotchwhisky,ginandvodka.Experienced
extensive overseas travel to support spirits producers and anti-counterfeit
programmes.
George N. Bathgate BSc PhD CChem FRSC FIBrew
Had an early career as a research and development scientist with Tuborg
Brewery in Copenhagen, Guinness Brewery in Dublin and the Brewing
Research Foundation at Nutfield. He became Technical Manager of
Moray Firth Maltings and Director of Production for Malting and Malt
Distilling in United Distillers plc and recently retired after 35 years in
the industry.
Tom A. Bringhurst BSc (Hons)
Originally entered the Scotch whisky industry with Pentlands Scotch Whisky
Research Ltd (PSWR). During the following 15 or so years he gained exten-
sive experience in the production areas of mashing, fermentation and dis-
tillation, through close involvement in PSWR distillery studies, both in the
context of research projects and specific studies requested by individual
distillery companies. Since 1996, when PSWR became the Scotch Whisky
Research Institute, he has worked primarily on research projects in the
areas of raw materials, cereals and cereals processing, fermentation and dis-
tillation. He is currently Quality Manager, with responsibility for the
Institute’s quality system, which is accredited to ISO 17025, by the United
Kingdom Accreditation Service.
Anne L. Broadhead (Fotheringham) BSc
IsascientistintheCerealsGroupatTheScotchWhiskyResearchInstitute.Her
area of special interest is wheat spirit yield analysis used by Scottish
Agricultural College (SAC) for grading wheat in Scotland.
xi
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:11 1-18
xii Contributors
James Brosnan BSc PhD
Was previously Process Development Scientist at United Distillers (now
Diageo) and is currently Research Manager at the Scotch Whisky Research
Institute, with responsibility for raw materials and primary production
projects.
Iain Campbell BSc PhD FIBrew FIBiol
Recently retired after 41 years at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. As a
Senior Lecturer in the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling he
taught distillation and maturation, including operation of the ICBD experi-
mental distillery. Previous publications include the textbook Brewing
Microbiology and editing the series of Proceedings of the four-yearly series of
Aviemore Conferences on Malting, Brewing and Distilling.
John Conner PhD
His first degree was in Pharmacy and after obtaining a PhD he carried out
postdoctoral research at the Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology,
University of Strathclyde. This was on projects jointly funded by the
Government (BBSRC) and industry (Chivas Brothers Ltd) on flavour changes
in whisky during maturation which resulted in the development of a clearer
understanding of ways in which the whisky matrix can enhance or suppress
the release of aroma compounds. He is currently a research scientist with the
Scotch Whisky Research Institute and is working on Maturation and Product
Integrity related projects.
Timothy C. S. Dolan BSc PhD FIBrew FIBiol
Heldseveralseniorpositionsinmalting,brewingandScotchwhiskydistilling.
He was successively a Research Scientist, Malting, Laboratory, Technical and
IndustryTechnicalManagerinthreemajorcompanies:ScottishandNewcastle
Breweries, ABM (Malting) Ltd and The Highland Distilleries Company Ltd
beforeearlyretirementin2000.Hehasastronginterestineducation,manage-
ment,researchandpublication,andisaFellowoftheIGB,IoBiolandRSC.He
is a Chartered Biologist and Chemist, as well as being a Member of the
Chartered Management Institute, and has been knighted for services to
science.
Grant E. Gordon MBA
Hasover20yearscommercialexperiencespentworkinginavarietyofsenior
management roles at William Grant & Sons, specializing in the international
marketing of Scotch whisky brands. He was closely involved in the early
development of single malt Scotch whisky, largely pioneered by Glenfiddich
(theworld’sleadingbrand),ownedbythefifthgenerationfamilyfirmWilliam
Grant & Sons. He is Director General, Institute for Family Business (UK);
Deputy Chairman, William Grant & Sons Ltd and Non-Executive Member
of the Board, Laurent-Perrier S.A. His education includes Harvard Business
School (OPM30), Kellogg Graduate School of Management (MBA),
Northwestern University and HEC Lausanne University, Switzerland
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:12 1-18
Contributors xiii
(LicenceSciencesEconomiquesetCommerciales).Inadditiontohisinterestin
Scotchwhisky,heiscloselyinvolvedinfamilybusinesseducationwhereheis
the Founding Director of the Institute for Family Business (UK), an indepen-
dent, not-for-profit association promoting the success and sustainability of
family firms.
Frances Jack BSc PhD
Isaresearchscientist,responsibleforsensoryevaluationattheScotchWhisky
Research Institute. She obtained her first degree in Food Science from
Strathclyde University in 1990. This was followed by a PhD in 1994, again
from Strathclyde University, the focus of this research being on sensory
method development and exploration of relationships between sensory and
analytical data.
Ian Lambert CChem MRSC MCIWEM
Has been Environmental Manager with Diageo (Scotland) Ltd since 1990. His
early career was in the heavy chemicals industry, followed by 21 years in
several roles in the field of water pollution control; both as regulator and
regulated.
Denis Arthur Nicol BSc
Has extensive experience in the alcohol industry including: Analytical
Chemist at Hiram Walker & Sons (Scotland) Ltd; Manager at the Tormore
Distillery, Speyside; General Manager at the Laphroaig Distillery, Islay;
Project Scientist at Long John International, Laboratory Manager at James
Burrough Distillers Ltd; Laboratory Services Manager at Allied Distillers Ltd
andTechnicalManageratDemeraraDistillersLtd,Guyana,SouthAmerica.In
addition he is a teacher of Chemistry, Physics and Science.
Bob Pass BSc
Has been involved in both the technical and marketing aspects of Distillers
Feeds for 25 years. He is currently the Marketing and Technical Manager,
Animal Feeds for Diageo, the world’s largest producer of alcoholic drinks.
Before joining Diageo he was with Pentlands Scotch Whisky Research, a
research organization funded by the whisky industry where he was head of
the by-products section. He had also previously worked with BP Proteins
on the technical marketing of yeast biomass protein (cultured aerobically on
normal paraffins) and with Dow Chemical.
Ken Reid PhD
Has 16 years experience in Scotch whisky research, with his work focused
mainly on whisky maturation chemistry. He graduated from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh with a degree in chemistry and in 1989 he gained his
PhD(onthesubjectofwhiskymaturationchemistry),whilstbasedatReading
Scientific Services Limited, Reading, England. He then joined the Scotch
Whisky Research Institute where he is now the Research Manager in charge
of the areas of Maturation and Product Protection.
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:13 1-18
Foreword
During the past three decades I have been fortunate enough to have filled
several technical roles in the Scotch whisky industry, at company level (in a
very small and later in a very large company) and at national industry level,
withinboththeMaltDistillers’andScotchWhiskyAssociations.Inallofthese
roles, and more recently as Visiting Professor at the International Centre for
Brewing and Distilling (ICBD), I have been asked by students, new entrants
and experienced colleagues, whether I could recommend a good textbook on
the technology of whiskies and the associated distilling processes.
In most technical and scientific disciplines, including the closely related
subjects of brewing and winemaking, this would not have been a difficult
question to answer and indeed a choice of admirable titles could be men-
tioned in these fields, depending upon the needs and background of the
enquirer.
Onthesubjectofwhiskies–especiallyScotchwhisky–manyvolumeshave
beenpublishedontheheritageandgeographyofdistilleriesandonthevariety
and tastes of their products. Indeed, the enthusiastic consumer can choose
from several shelves of such books, and every year sees at least one or two
worthy additions to this bibliography. However, for the serious scientific
student seeking to extend or update their knowledge across the breadth
of whisky technologies, there is a dearth of suitable textbooks – indeed only
one or two have appeared in the past century and none at all, to my knowl-
edge, in the past decade. Yet the technical knowledge of distilling (and its
relateddisciplines)continuestobeadvancedsteadilybyanumberofeminent
researchers,andaregularstreamofscientificpaperscontinuestobepublished
in our specialist journals.
Therefore,Iamdelightedthatearlyinthenewmillenniumwecanwelcome
this much needed volume which updates our scientific knowledge across the
whole field of whisky distillation and fills an acknowledged gap on the
shelves of our technical libraries.
Professor Alan G. Rutherford OBE BSc PhD CChem CEng FRIC FInstE FInstBrew
Visiting Professor
ICBD
Heriot-Watt University
xv
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:15 1-18
Preface
There are surprisingly few technical books available that discuss distilled
beverages. This book focuses specifically on whisk(e)y and allows the reader
to delve beyond the art of the beverage, into the science and technology
behind one of the world’s most loved drinks.
In this first book in the Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages series, highly
respected experts from academia and industry provide a unique perspective
into a production process that has traditionally been cloaked in secrecy. Most
publications have treated the production process as more art than science,
despite the high quality of research and development, and quality assur-
ance/quality control[**AQ] that the industry invests in and prides itself on.
Thehistoryofthedevelopmentofwhiskydistillation,startingwithitsmon-
astic roots in Ireland and Scotland, is reviewed in the first chapter by George
Bathgate, retired Director of Production for Malting and Malt Distilling
(United Distillers Plc). In the next chapter, Tim Dolan who has extensive
experience in malting and distilling (ABM malting and The Highland
Distilleries)examinesmaltwhiskiesintermsofrawmaterialsandprocessing.
In the third chapter, three authors from the Scotch Whisky Institute: Tom
Bringhurst,AnneFotheringham(Broadhead)andJamesBrosnandiscussgrain
whisky in terms of raw materials and processing. Iain Campbell, who has
lectured and carried out research for many years at the International Centre
for Brewing and Distilling, Heriot Watt University, comprehensively covers
thetopicsofyeastandfermentationaswellasgrainwhiskydistillation.Denis
Nicol,whohasextensiveexpertiseworkingwithanumberofdistilleries over
theyears, explains batch distillation.Maturationandblendingare covered by
three experts from the Scotch Whisky Research Institute: John Conner, Ken
ReidandFrancesJack.TheMarketingandTechnicalManager–AnimalFeeds,
(United Distillers and Vintners) Robert Pass and I. Lambert (also from UDV)
discuss co-products in terms of volumes produced, markets, and nutritional
characteristics.Thisisanareawheretodaythereisgreatinterestbothfroman
environmentalandeconomicpointofview.Theintricaciesofwhiskyanalysis
are discussed by Ross Aylott (Diageo) who is active in risk management and
brand protection, particularly the brand and generic authenticity of Scotch
whisky. The final chapter in the book details the marketing of Scotch whisky
andiswrittenbyGrantGordon–itcoversmanagingbrandimagesthroughto
xvii
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:17 1-18
xviii Preface
routestomarket.GrantGordonhasover20yearscommercialexperiencewith
William Grant & Sons, specializing in the international marketing of Scotch
whisky brands and was closely involved in the early development of single
malt Scotch whisky, largely pioneered by Glenfiddich.
One area that the book does not discuss is the variety and specific tastes of
theproduct.Therearenumerousbooksavailablethatdiscussthisareaingreat
depth, but it would be remiss not to address the one technical question that
consumersalwaysask...doesonemixthewhiskywithwater,withsodaoris
it best to consume it straight ?
Theopinionsonthisareasvariedasthenumberofproductsonthemarket
andthereisnodoubtthattheexpertswillneveragreetoonebestpresentation.
It will vary with the individual product, the country and indeed current
trends. However, from a scientific point of view, the general wisdom is that
the addition of a small amount of water is key to release the aromatics. How
muchwaterandwhattypeofwater?Whataboutsodawater?Thatisanother
debate. Ice ... even more debate!
Intheend,eachconsumer’sdecisionisthecorrectonewhentheyserveitin
the way that gives them the flavour that they most enjoy ... and for that
particular consumer that is the correct way to drink the product.
Regardlessofhowthedrinkisbestenjoyed,thisbookwillgivethereadera
better appreciation of the science, technology and marketing of whisky.
Inge Russell PhD DSc FIBrew
Canada
[15:5613/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-Prelims.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyPrelims Page:18 1-18
1
C h a p t e r
History of the
development of whiskey
distillation
George N. Bathgate
Introduction
Nearly all distilled alcoholic beverages have similar generic roots depending
onthebasicrawmaterial,whethergrape,grainorsugar.Suchdistillateswere
in the past regarded as having great medicinal, almost mystical, properties
andtheirrecipeswereentrustedtothereligiousclericsoftheirdayandtradi-
tion. The generic Latin name given to these distilled products was aqua vitae
(the water of life). This is certainly true in the case of whiskey, which is a
corruption of the Gaelic uisge beatha (again, water of life). This appellation,
spelledwithoutan‘e’inScotlandbutwithan‘e’inIrelandandAmerica,isthe
generic name for a distilled product made from saccharified and fermented
cereal extracts. In some cases this definition is even more specific, in that the
saccharificationprocessisimplementedonlybytheenzymesofmaltedbarley.
In other traditions, similar distillates from alternative sources of fermentable
sugar were translated from Latin as l’eau de vie in France or aquavit in
Scandinavia and so on. All these spirits were regarded as having remarkable
restorative properties.
From its monastic roots in Ireland and Scotland, the distillation of whiskey
developedover severalcenturiesintoacommercial enterprisein various con-
tinents. It is now well known that the first record of a commercial transaction
involving the supply of whiskey (sic. aqua vitae) was between the Benedictine
monastery at Lindores Abbey in Fife and the Court of King James IV at
Holyrood, Edinburgh in the year 1494 (Anon., 1494). The distiller in charge
atLindoresmusthavebeenaFatherJohnCor.becausetheExchequerRollsof
Scotland records the supply of ‘eight bolls of malt’ to the said Friar ‘to make
Whisky:Technology,ProductionandMarketing Copyright2003
ISBN0-12-669202-5 Allrightsofreproductioninanyformreserved
1
[15:2413/3/03n:/3991RUSSELL.751/3991-001.3d] Ref: 3991 WhiskyCh001 Page:1 0-25
