Wheeled vehicles and ridden animals in the ancient Near East

105 Pages·90.644 MB·English

by  M.A. Littauer and J.H. Crouwel , drawings by J. Morel.

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WHEELED VEHICLES AND
RIDDEN ANIMALS
IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
BY
J.
M. A. LITTAUER H. CROUWEL
AND
DRA~GSBYJ.MOREL
LEIDEN/KOLN
E. J. BRILL
1979
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LIST OF ABBREVIAnONS
AA Archdologischer Anseiger
AAAS Annales archeologiques arabes syriennes
AASOR Annual ofthe American Schools ofOriental Research
AfO Archiufiir Orientforschung
AHw Soden, \V. von. Akkadisches Handuiorterbuch,Wiesbaden 1963
AlA American [ournal ofArchaeology
AMI Archaologische Mitteilungen aus Iran
ANET Ancient NearEastern TextsrelatingtotheOld Testament (ed.].B.Pritchard)
Princeton 1955
ANET Swp-pl, Ancient Near Eastern Supplementary Texts and Pictures (ed. ]. B. Prit
chard). Princeton 1969
ANEP ]. B. Pritchard, AncientNearEastinPicturesRelatingtotheOldTestament,
Princeton 1954.
AOAT AlterOrientundAltesTestament.Neukirchen 1969-
ARMT Archives royales de Mari iTextes transcrites et traduitesi, Paris 1950
AS Anatolian Studies
ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte
BASOR Bulletin ofthe American Schools of Oriental Research
BiOr Biblioiheca Orientalis
BI V BerliHerIahrbucbfiir Vor- undFriihgeschichte
BM1'VIA Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum ofArt. New York
BMQ British MuseumQuarterly. London
CAD Chicago Assyrian Dictionary.Chicago and Gllickstadt 1956
CAH Cambridge Ancient History. 3rd ed. Cambridge 1970
DAFI Cahiers de la delegation archeologique francaiseen Iran
Encyclopedic 5, 6 Encyclopedic photogra-pbique d'art. L'art de la Mesopotamie ancienne au
J1fusee du Louvre,fasc. 5, 6. Paris 1936
HSS Harvard Semitic Series. Cambridge (Mass.)
IA Iranica Antiqua
lEI Israel Exploration f ournal
ILN IllustratedLondon News
Ist111 Istanbuler Mitteitungen
l AOS [ournai of the American Oriental Society
IARCE [ournal ofthe American ResearchCenter in Egypt
I CS [ournal ofCuneiform Studies
IdI IahrbucbdesdeutschenarchiiologischenInstituts,AbteilungAthen
l EA [ournal of Egyptian Archaeology
IFA [ournal ofField Archaeology
I HS [ournal ofHellenic Studies
I KAF Iahrbucbfiir kleinasiatische Forschung
I NES [ournal ofNear Eastern Studies
KUB Keilschrifturkunden ausBoghazkoi
KBo Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazkoi
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LAAA Liverpool Annals ofArtand Archaeology
MCS ManchesterCuneiform Series
MDAIK Mitteilungen des deutschen archdologischen Lnstituts, Abteilung Kairo
MDOG .Mitteilungen del'deutschen Orient-Geselischaft
MDP Memoires de la delegatior: e1J Perse (including volumes with slightly dif
ferenttitles but numbered in same sequence). Paris
MID Mitteilungendes Institutsfiir Orientforschung
MMJ Metropolitan M'useum Journal. New York
NF Neue Folge
NS New Series
OECT Oxford Editions ofCuneiform Texts
OIC Oriental InstituteCommunication.Chicago
OIP Oriental Institute Publication. Chicago
OLZ Orienialische Literatur Zeitung
PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
PZ PrdhistorischeZeitschrift
RA Revued'assyriologie et d'archeologieorientale
RB Revue biblique
RDAC Report of the Department ofAntiquities,Cyprus
RTC Thureau-Dangin, F. Recueil des tabletteschaldeennes, Paris 1903
SA Sovetskaja Arkheologija
SBoT Studien zu den Bogazkoy Teste. Wiesbaden 1965-
TRU Legrain, L. Le temps des rois d'Ur:Recherches sur la societe antique d'apres
des testesnouveaux. Paris 1912
TS$ ]estin R., T'ablettes sumeriennes de $uruppak conseruees au» Mwsee de
Stamboul, Paris 1937
UE Ur Excavation Reports. London-Philadelphia
UET Ur Excavation Texts
UVB VorlaiifigerBericht iiber die Ausgrabungen in Untk-WaI·ka. Berlin
WdO Die Welt des Orients
WVDOG WissenschaftlicheVerofferulicbungen.del'deuischenOrient-Gesellschaft
ZA ZeitschriftfurAssyriologieuruluorderasiatischeArchiiologie
zAs
ZeitschriftfiiriigyptischeSpracheundAltertumskunde
I
I
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The present survey of the evidence for transport by wheeled vehicle and on the
ridden animal in theNear East covers Mesopotamia, Iran,theLevant,and Anatolia.
Material from Transcaucasia, Egypt, and Cyprus is considered only when it com
plements or illuminates the areas of primary interest. Chronologically, the study
covers a period ranging from the later 4th millennium B.C., when wheeled vehicles
are first attested in the Near East, to the time of the conquests of Alexander the
Great, ca 330 B.C.
This survey has profited greatly from work already donein the field. The earliest
still valuable studieswere published mainlyin Germany:Nuoffer (1904),Studniczka
(1907), Popplow (1934), Hermes (1936),Potratz (1938), Wiesner (1939). DesNoettes,
in France, contributed the only attempt to analyse and evaluate ancient techniques
of driving and riding (1931). After the Second World War, the work of Schacher
meyr (1951) and Childe (three important contributions: one in 1951 and two in
1954), as well as Hancar's comprehensive study (1955)appeared. Haudricourt made
two attempts to trace the evolution of wheeled vehicles and harness (1948, 1955).
The 1950'S also saw the publication of two books by A. Salonen on Near-Eastern
textualdocumentation ofvehiclesand transport animals (1951,1955).
Since the beginning of the 1960'S, along with the discovery of much new material,
the literature has substantially increased. It includes a book by Kammenhuber on
the Hittite texts (1961) and relevant sections in works by Yadin (1963), Hrouda
(1965) and Madhloom (1970) that are devoted primarily to other subjects. A survey
of chariots by Nagel (1966)and newstudies by Potratz (1966-mainly on horse bits)
and Wiesner (1968)-none of them confined strictly to the Near East-are also
important. Piggott (1968a) has contributed a majorstudy ofwheeled vehiclesin and
around the Caucasusregion. Themost recent literatureincludestheexhaustive work
by Zarins (1976)on evidencefor equidsin Mesopotamiain the3rd millennium B.C.,a
survey of the ridden horse down to the Sarmatian period by Kovalevskaya (1977)
and an account by Spruytte of his experiments with types of ancient vehicles and
harnessing (1977).
The present discussion is based primarily on archaeological evidence. As we are
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lNTRODUCTlON
not orientalists, textual documentation will be used sparingly end cautiously.
AlthoU«"hthematerialispresentedinchronologicalsequence,the-timedivisionsdo
not always correspond withclearly defined onesinallparts of the Near East. CHAPTERT\\'O
Therelativeand absolutechronologiesusedMebasedontherevisedC.mbriJge
ArKutil HiUMy {197I'73~75}and onCM~i,.OldWUTU ArcNuo!ogy (ed. GLOSSARY
R W.Ehrich.Chicago1965),together with refinementsandcorrectionsmadein
CItrOft.Okgie.sin Old World Arc!t&l)wgy,SMnitl4r:ss:ICo/",mbia Unit'nuty [ed. E. NoU.Forlackofpreciseequivalents,modemtermsareoftenusedheretodesig
PoradainA/A74.1970;75.197I;16,1972;77.1973;78.1974:So.I9i6;81,]9"77). nateancientelementsofharnessorbridling.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatancient
The chronology of individual Assyrian kings follows that of Brinkman (Il)64: and modern elements ofsimilarfunction or appearanceareseldom identical in
revisions1976). everyrespect.andthatthetermsaresometimesusedloosely.
A-fr<JmIcart, Thiscarthasatrapezoidalfloor,tbesidetimbersofwhichcontinue
F Iorwardbeyondtheflooruntilthey meet.This fonns a triangular "draught
pole"(q.v.),attbeapexofwhichtho:yokeisattached.theskeletonofthewhole
, resemblingacapitalletterA.
A-P-Ok. Adraughtpole[q.v.]intheIormofanelongatedcapitalletterA.tileyoke
beingattachedatitsapex.
Axle. Arodpassingunderneaththevehiclefloor.thewheelsrevolvingonitorit
revolving....-ithtbewheels;inantiquity,alwaysofwood.
Backingtlemeni. Andementofharness(q.v.) that transmitsbackward(ascorn
paredtotheusualforward) movementofthedraughtanimalstothevehicle•
atthesametimepreventingthemfrombackingoutofharness.Inantiquity.
thiselement isoften lackingand. whenpresent, isrelativelyinefficient. In
theandmillenniumB.C.itiscomposedofastraprunningeitherfromlower
yoke-saddle[q.v.]end toloweryoke-saddle endorfrom lowerouterendof
yokesaddle todraughtpole{q.v.}- ineithercasepassing beneaththe belly.
Duringtherstmillennium RC.,thissystemapparentlychanges toonethat
combinesatruegirth(q.v.)withabreastband[q.v.}.
BiJ. Bridle(q.v.)elementforcontrolofhorsebythemouth;composedofmouth
piece{q.v.] and cheekpieces (q.v.)- the latter oftenmiscalled pso2liain the
literature.Primitive bitsbadthong.ropeorgutmouthpiecesand antleror
bonecheekpieces,thelatteractingas toggles tokeep themouthpiecefrom
slippingsidewaysout ofthemouth.){etal bitswerecomposed ofsingleor
compound(jointed)mouthpieces{s.v.canon)and apair ofcheekpieces.The
latterwereheldinplacebydividedcbeekstraps(q.v.)and,ontheearlierNear.
Eastern bits. theends ofthe mouthpieces passedthrough the cheekpieces.
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CLOSS.-\RY GLOSSARY
Reinswereattachedeitherdirectlytothemouthpieceendsortosomemetal used forwarfare,hunting.racingand ceremonial purposes.Itscrew usually
elementconnectingwiththem.Theactionofthesebitswasclosertothatof stood, .
themodemsnafflethantoanyothermodernbit,sincetheyexertedpressure C~' In antiquity,twopairedelements ofa.bit. inthefann of variously
GOthecornersofthehorses'mouth.Theirconsrrucnon,however,wassomewhat shapedplaquesorrods.Lyingatthecornersofthehorse'slips.andattachedto
different,andthosewithjointedmouthpieceshadanaddedaction.unknownin theheadstall(q.v.)by:singleor,moreoften,bymultiplecheekstrape (q.v.),
modernbits.fromthepressureofthecbeekpiecesagaiMtthelowerjaw. tbecheekpiecesheldthemouthpieceinplace,andmightalsoexertpressureon
BJifJkM. An element attached to the cheekstrap (q.v.)of theheadstall (q.v.), theoutsideofthehorse',lowerjaw.
coveringthehorse'seyeandenablinghim toseeaheadbut not totheside. Chahtraps, Sidestraps ofheadstall (q.v.), attached to the cheekpiecea (q.v.)
In antiquityitprobablyserved toprotect theeyeinbattleand/ortoprevent ofthebitandservingtoholdtheminplace.Inantiquitycommonlybranchedto
harnessedstallionsfrombickeringwiththeirteammatesorwithotherstallions takethecheekpiece.
abreastofthem. Cruup. Tha.tpartofthehorse'sback.lyingovertheanimal'sloinsandextending
Boz. Usedheretodesignatethefloorandsuperstructureofavehicle. totherootofthetail.
B,.ustb4.nd. Inantiquity,astrapattachedtothefrontedgesofa.saddleclothor Crt:rrnlp-ieu. Part ofheadstall (q.v.} going fromsideto sideovercrownor poll
packsaddleandrunningacrossthehorse'schest.designedtoholdtheseobjects (q.v.}ofhOTSe'~bead.
inposition.Abo.onAssyrianchariothorsesof8thand7thcent.B.C.,attached C,...pper. Inantiquity,strapattached torearofsaddleclothorpacksaddle and
togirth(q.v.)atsides. runningbackacrosscentreo(crouptopassMoundrootoftail:designedtohelp
BmuJpl4k. Inantiquity,protectiveordecorativeelementofmetaland/orleather. keepdothorsaddleinplace.
hungacrosshorse'schest. DrrJ.uglslpok. In antiquity,theelement that connected thevehicleto theyoke
BrudJi"f_ In antiquity, strap attached to rear edge'Sof saddle cloth or pack (q.v.)ofthedraughtanimals.Therewasnormallyonepole,butduringthe rst
saddle,running back alocg Ilanks ofanimaland passingaround buttocks, millenniumB.C.twopolesabooccur,
designedtoholdclothorsaddleinposition. Fdktt. Therimofawheel.intowhichtheouterendsofthespokesaremorticed.
Bridle. ),Ieansof coctrolllng horse by the head.Composed of headstall (q.v.), PrOttiJa (alsonosepieceorchamfroo).Protectiveordecorativeelementofmetalor
withorwithoutbit[q.v.],andreins(q.v.]. ivoryandleatherlyingoverIcreheadandnasalbone01horse,sometimescorn
C03nMl. Youthpieceofametalbit,oreachsingleelementofacompound("jointed" binedwithapollcrest(q.v.).
or"broken")mouthpiece. Girlh. Bandencirclingthethoraxofananimalorattachedtoloweredgesofsaddle
Carl. Alwaystwo-wheeled,butwithwheelsofanyconstruction(q.v.):forcarrying clothandpassingunderbelly.
stableloads.i.e.goodsorseatedpassengers. Goad. Alongpointedstick,forprodding.
CiWalry. Thistermmay onlybeproperlyappliedtomountedtroops whenthese Gqrgd. Smaller,higher-placedfonnofbreastplate[q.v.],
aretrainedtothedegreewheretheycanfunctionwithprecisionasaunit--not HQ/j1W!eband. Seeunder"noseband."
onlyadvancingoncommandbutchanginggaits,turning,deployingandreas Halkr. Simpleheadstall(q.v.).used.forleadinganimal orfortyingitupbythe
semblingin their properpositionsin the ranks.Duringtheperiodscovered head.
heretheyseldom,ifever,fulfilltheseconditions. Harness. Theaggregateofthevariousstrapsthatattachananimaltothetraction
Cat't1$OfS. Used here for a strong,fitted headstall (q.v.}, to which reins (q.v.) elements ofavehicle. In antiquity specifically neckstrap(q.v.)and (often)
wereattached. bailingelement(q.v.},
CMm-fr()fJ. (see"frontlet"). H~4dslall. Partofbridle(q.v.),made01strapsorropeanddesignedtoboldcon
C~. Alight,fast,two-wheeled,usuallyhorse-drawn,vehiclewithspokedwheels; trollingbit or noseband in place.Comprises crownpiece (q.v.) (going over
t
6 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY 7
crown of head behind ears); cheekstraps (q.v.) running down from this to Terret. Rings through which lines or reins pass; in antiquity fastened to poleor
noseband and/or bit;throatlash (q.v.)running from sideto side under horse's ,.:'yoke,ortoadraughtorharnesselementontheanimal'sshoulder.
throat; sometimes a browband running across the forehead; and a noseband Throat/ash. Strap or thongpassingunder throat or rear ofjawfrom cheekstrap to
encircling the nose or muzzle, or half noseband (q.v.) running across the nose cheekstrap (q.v.)andsecuring headstall (q.v.).
and joiningthecheekstraps. Tilt. Acanvas,wickerorwoodencanopy orhood for a vehicle.
Hoggedmane. Manecutshort. Tracehorse. See "outrigger."
Hub. See "nave." Trapper, trappingorhousing. Aprotectiveordecorativecovering for thebodyofa
Lincbpin. Togglepin passingthrough axleendtoprevent thewheelfromslipping .horse.
offtheaxle. T'yre. An outer element of the wheel, protecting the tread of the felloe (q.v.);
Mouthpiece. Thepartofthebitlyingmainlyinsidethehorse'smouth.Inprimitive inantiquity, ofmetal,rawhideorwood.Italsohelpedtoconsolidatethewheel.
bits (q.v.)it is made of organic materials;in other bits, it is composed of one Wagon. Always four-wheeled,usuallya relatively heavy vehicle.
or more canons (q.v.). It was, accordingly,single and solid or "jointed." The Wheel
canons might be plain or twisted. At their ends they had loops for attaching Crossbar wheel. Wheel with a diametric bar, through which the axle (q.v.)
reins directly or by means ofa metal connectingelement. passes. Lighter"crossbars" run at right anglesto thecentralbar,between
Naveorhub. Theinner cylindrical element ofa wheel,in which theinner ends of it and the felloe (q.v.).
thespokes(q.v.)aresecuredandthroughwhichtheaxle(q.v.)passes. Disk wheel. Also called "block wheel." Wheel of solid appearance made of
Neckstrap, Strap passingaround neck and attached at eitherend to lower ends of onepieceofwoodorofseveral- thencalled"compositedisk."
yokesaddlesortoyokeitself.Itspurposeistoholdtheyokeinplace. Spoked wheel. Wheel composed of nave (q.v.), spokes (q.v.) and felloe (q.v.),
Noseband. One ofthestraps oftheheadstall. Itusually encirclesthe noseand jaw often with a tyre (q.v.).
but,intheformofahalfnoseband,maymerelyrunacrossthenosefromcheek Withers. Most prominent area of an equid's or a bovid's spine, formed by the
strap (q.v.)tocheekstrap. vertebral processes and located between theshoulder blades.Theheight ofan
Outrigger. Alsolessaccuratelycalled"tracehorse." Inteamsofthreeorfour horses equidismeasuredfromthegroundtothehighest pointofthewithers.
abreast (trigae and quadrigae), a horse not directly under the yoke, but con Yoke. The wooden element running across the necks of two or more draught
nectedmorelooselywith thevehicle. animals and connectingthemwith thepole (q.v.).
Polehorseorpoter. In antiquity,one ofthetwo horsesthat flanked thepole (q.v.). Yoke saddle. An element for adapting the yoke to the conformation of equids.
Poll. Crown ofhorse'shead. Of inverted Y shape, its "handle" was lashed to the yoke and its "legs" lay
Poll crest or poll plume. Decorative and/or protective element on poll (q.v.), con along theauimal's shoulders
sistingofplumes,tasselsorhelmet crest with horsehair. Y-pole. Composite draught pole (q.v.). formed of two poles, one corning from
"Psalion," Greek word for metal element of bridle,separatefrom bit and having either side of the vehicle, bent inwards and brought together a short distance
..
the effect of a muzzle or a rigid noseband. Term often misused for the cheek ahead ofthe box (q.v.),toruncontiguously out to theyoke.
piece (q.v.)ofa bit.
Pulledmane. Manethinned and evened offby handpulling.
Reins. Straps running back from the bit (q.v.) or cavesson (q.v.) to the driver's
or rider's hands.
Spoke. Radial timber ofa wheel,set into thenave (q.v.)at one end and thefelloe
(q.v.)at the other.
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SOME GENERALCONSIDERATIONS 9
requiring a primary one under some other vehicle. Nor, since the roller's prime
, functionistofacilitatethemovementofalarge,flatsurfaceovertheground,would
CHAPTERTHREE .:ithaveanypurposeunderpoleends.Thepracticallikelihoodofthe wheeldeveloping
from a (hypothetical) rollerin usewitha travoisjslidecar isthusinfinitelylessthan
SOME GENERALCONSIDERATIONS its evolution from rollersplaced under a platform or sledge. Moreover, whilerollers
under platforms are still in use today in the moving of heavy objects, thereis no
WHEELED VEHICLES evidenceanywhere,atanytimeofatravois/slidecarusedwith rollers.
Muchhasbeenwrittenabouttheoriginofwheeledvehicles,theso-called"sledge" Whilethetravois/slide car, asthesimplest ofvehicles,issurelyofgreat antiquity
and the"travois/slide-car" theories being the two most frequently cited.Or a dual in certain areas, there is no evidence to connect it at all with any of the earliest
originmaybeposited,withthesledgebeing consideredancestraltothefour-wheeler known wheeledvehicles-eitherfour-wheelersortwo-wheelers.Thesearefirst attested
and thetravoisjslidecar ancestral tothetwo-wheeler."Each theory must be exam in earlier 3rd-millennium B.c. Mesopotamia by figured documents and actual
ined for its inherentfeasibility, as well as in the light of the knowtl chronologies of remains (d. Chap. V).preceded in the later 4th millennium by pictographic signs
wheeledtransport and ofsystemsof draught. In all cases, a roller placed beneath the showing sledges and sledges on two rollers or (more likely) already four wheels,
vehicleisconsidered eventually tohavesuggestedtheaxleandwheels.Prerequisites whichpoint clearly toasledge-with-rollerorigin (d.Chap. IV).There isnoevidence
for thiswould be: I) the necessity to transport material too heavy or bulky tobe of any travois/slide car in this region and the geographically closest document is
carried by men or packed byanimals, and 2) therecognition that a rollingsupport onlyfnznd-millenniumTranscaucasia.
beneaththecarrierwould beadvantageous. In tracing origins, therelevanceofthe type of draught associated with thebasic
The sledgeis essentially a horizontal platform, with or without runners. Rollers travois/slide car is often overlooked. The two poles of this vehicle are essentially
placed beneath it facilitate its movement (particularly over level ground), a mini shafts. Except when thesearethevery long poles of the American Indian tepee,2
mum of two rollers being required under it at anyone time in order to keep the whicharecarried at asharp slope and crossedaheadofthe witherssothat they will
platform horizontal and to permit the successive repositioning under the front of not protrudeahead ofthehorseat a leveltointerferewithotheranimals orpeople,
therollersreleasedat therearasthevehiclemovesforward.Toobviate theconstant theyare dropped to theside oftheanimal to reduce theangle ofinclination; they
switchingof rollers, thesemay be made "captive" by, for instance, placing them areheldup byasupport across thebackandkept forwardby astrapin front ofthe
between shallow cleats fastened beneath the platform. An effort to reduce the chest, which also takes the pull. Such a system would soon have developed into
runningsurfacewould resultin reducing thediameters oftherollersexcept at their shaft-and-breastcollar harness, i.e. economical, efficient single draught. Thelatter,
ends, where they extended beyond theplatform, and thus wouldform a primitive however, is first attested in me with wheeledvehiclesonly in the 3rd century B.C.,
single-unit axle andwheels. in early Han China, nearly 3000 years after the first appearance of wheeled vehi
Thetraooislslidecaressentiallyconsists oftwo slopingpolescrossedinfront ofthe cles.!
withers (q.v.)of an animal or carried alongitssides.The ends ofthesedrag on the Ontheotherhand, thepole-and-yokedraughtsystemassociatedwithall wheeled
ground and the load or carrier is lashed across them behind the animal. It would vehiclesup to the3rdcenturyB.C.,isdocumentedalreadyby theearliest represen
bea physical impossibility tokeep a looserollerundertheseends;it would haveto tations and material remains in Mesopotamia. The single, central draught pole
be "captive:' which would imply already a secondary stage of development, would have originated with bovids under yoke, one on either side of the plough
1 Recent discussion in Piggott 1968a, 292,309££.; 1968b, 436ft.;previously a.o. Berg 1935; I Ewers1955.fig.18andpI.5:b;Grinnell1923,fig.opp.p.96;GraybillandBoesen1976,275.
Haudricourt 1948, 54£!.withfig. 14(chronologyand,as result,proposed sequenceofteninac • DesNoettes1931.83ft.,109ft.;Needham1965,247,304ft.;Piggott1968a.267.Formodem
curate);Childe 1951, 177,1931.;1954a, zf.: 1954b, 204ff.; Kothe 1953,74ft.;Haudricourtand shaftandbreast-collarharness.a.o.'Walrond1974.33withfigs.127.129.
Delamarre1955.155ft.;Hancar 1956.436ft.;Needham1965,243ft•304ff. • A.o.Perkins.D.Jr.1969.177ft.;1973.280;Bokonyi1973a.74; 1976,2If.
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10 SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS II
beam that helped to keep the share straight. Domestic cattle had been known in .area was Mesopotamia by a chronological chart of diffusion that has not, in its
Mesopotamia and otherparts of the Near East for some 2000 years," and theplough . ~a,siclines, beenrefuted.Thistypeofwheel was also accompaniedbypaireddraught.
beam was there to be converted into the pole 'of a vehicle when the time carne." <I.tis indeed Mesopotamia that has yielded evidence for the first development of
The pole could be attached asa separate element to the four-wheeler, or it could be wheeled vehicles, in which platforms and sledges, rollers, and ploughs pulled by
~ raised overa singleaxle and givena saddle-likeseat,as in thetwo-wheeled "straddle . pairedcattlemustallhaveplayedarole, butnotthetravoisfslidecar.
cars" (d. p. 21) that appear in the early 3rd millennium B.C., and that point
ANIMAL-BACK RIDING
unequivocally to the single pole.
This paired draught traction system indeedhad evidentlybecome such a powerful The muscles used and the muscular effort exerted in carrying a weight are quite
traditionin the NearEastthatitwas substitutedfor singledraught with the travoisf different from those required to pull one. The draught animals harnessed to sledges
slide car when the latter was introduced into Transcaucasia (presumably from the or four-wheelers carry only the weight of the pole or shafts; those hitched to two
• north) apparently during the znd millennium B.C. The same may be said for the wheelers may carry anything, from almost no weight to a certain portion of the
earliest slidecarsin the Mediterranean region,which are documentedin the Ligurian vehicular load, depending on the position of the axle, the length of the pole or
Alps in the Early Bronze Age (ca 1800-1450 B.C.).6 shafts, the gradient of the terrain, etc., but the ridden animal bears the full weight
In this respect it may benoted that the triangular, A-frame cart (q.v.),sometimes of the load.
adduced as evidence of the derivation of the original two-wheeler from a triangular Equids throughout antiquity, however, were harnessed by pole and yoke-a
travoisfslide car to which rollers had been added, is first firmly attested only in system devised for the anatomy of bovids and inadequately adapted to that of
• later znd-millennium B.C. in Transcaucasia.' A triangular slide car is indeed docu equids. Although less inefficient than has sometimes been claimed, this method is
mented here possibly somewhat earlier, and the two converging arms of the trian uneconomical and far from perfect. Moreover, the ridden animal can function in
gular cart pole make a genetic connection between the two in this area likely. But ways and over terrain where a vehicle cannot, and may be ridden with a minimum
the cart uses the paired draught as well as the composite disk wheel that point to of equipment. It is therefore surprising that the horse was not more generally em
Mesopotamian influence. Although its wide diffusion today (from the Iberian ployed as a mount from the beginning of his introduction into the Near East, and
peninsula to India) has been taken as proof of its great antiquity,"it is noteworthy that his extensive use-particularly in warfare-had to wait for many centuries.
that the A-frame is nowhere attested among the numerous early two-wheelers from The explanation sometimes offered-that the horse at that time was too small to
Mesopotamia and the Levant, all of which display the single central draught pole, carry a man-is invalid. Recent palaeontological research has shown that horses
nor is it found among those of the Indus civilization, which show Mesopotamian of the 2nd and rst millennia B.C., although only large ponies by modern western
derivation.P There are no known examples of Greek or Roman carts displaying this European standards, were as big and as capable of carrying riders as many horses
form. The dissemination appears to have been late. riddentodayin certainpartsoftheworld.P
Childe postulated that the composite disk wheel was too complex a construction Apart from thefrequently cited factors of theprestige ofseniority, the freedom of
to have originated in more than one area.l" He supported his contention that this thechariotwarriortodevotehisentire attention to fighting, and thesuperior amount
ofmateriel a chariot could carry, there are alsoothers often insufficiently considered
6 Cf. Smith. E.L. and Young. T.C.Jr. 1972, 47; Falkenstein 1936, 56 with no. 214 (Uruk in attempting to explain thelong prevalence of the chariot team over the individual
IVa pictographic sign); Salonen 1968 (textual and representational evidence of ploughing). mount in military, hunting and parade use. Equids are herd animals; even today
76 PKiagrgaokthta1n9i6a8naa.n2d89Sfaf.fiwanith19f7i0g,. 464(wdi.thalpslos.fi5g2..1906),;1L4i8t;taBuiecrknaenldl 1C9r1o3u,wpeI.l I1I9I7.6, 76ff.; Lit- horses still have a strong herd instinct. The cavalry charge, horse racing, certain
tauer 1977. 260 withfig.33· kinds of mounted hunting-circumstances in which horses are required to act in
6 Supra n. I; also Fenton 1973, 147ff.
9 Childe 1951, 183; 1954a, 10.
10 Childe 1951, 193. .: 11 For brief, importantreview of horse-back riding, Powell 1971.
~ 12 SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
frightening, demanding and (for them), often unnatural ways,have been made
possible by this instinct. Early domesticated equids must have hadit more strongly
CHAPTERFOUR
than today's. This would have facilitated their'early use in herding, in the pack
train, or in transhumance, but would have made their individual functioning, as
LATER FOURTH MILLENNIUM B.C.
D couriers' mounts, for instance, difficult. If we are to judge by the (much later) As
syrian evidence, it took over a century after horses began to be regularly mounted
WHEELED VEHICLES
in warfare before they were functioning independently and not in close pairs.
Another factor in the long prevalence of chariotry over mounted troops in the The first evidence for the use of wheeled vehicles comes from the site of Uruk in
ancient Near East may have been that the horse shoe had not yet been invented. southern Mesopotamia. It consists of simple pictographic signs on inscribed clay
Asses and even mules, have harder hooves than horses, whose original habitat was tablets found in Uruk level IVa (ca 3200-3IOO B.C.). The signs represent sledges
~ the grassy steppe. Caravan animals, moreover, move at a steady but fairly slow with runners in front, as well as similar sledges raised over what may be either two
pace along a regular cleared trail. Speed, however, and the ability to cross rough (captive) rollers or four disk wheels (f£g. I),1 which may be called "sledge cars".»
countrywhen necessarywas required ofthe war horse.Ifto this,one adds theweight Wheels seem already more likely here than rollers, as they are clearly represented
of an armed rider, the horse's hooves would break down the sooner. It may have earlyin the next millennium. These earliest vehicles are always shown with a roofed
been only when horses became more plentifully available that commanders were superstructure. That the latter may represent a coveredlitter is suggested bya very
B willingtoexpendthemin largenumbers undermountedtroops. small unprovenanced steatite plaque of the same period, which shows an important
Civilian riding, however, is documented much earlier-by the 3rd millennium in personnage (or, conceivably, an effigy of a deity) seated in a litter with an arched
the Near East. Mounted messengers and couriers may have sometimes even been tilt, the legs of which are set on such a sledge (fig. 2).3There is no firm evidence of
able to find for their use equids not prohibitively herdbound. Travel would have two-wheelers at this period.'
been possible-particularly in the company of other riders-and the scarcity of
DRAUGHT ANIMALS
horses in the Near East prior to the znd millennium B.C. need not have precluded
The sledge seen on the steatite plaque is drawn by one or two bovids. It may be
~ riding for such purposes. Indeed, asses and hybrid equids have smooth gaits, are
suggested that these were the regular draught animals of these vehicles. Domestic
surer-footed in mountainous or rocky going, and have simpler dietary requirements
cattle, referred to in the Uruk texts, are osteologically attested in the Near East
than horses. Moreover, the "donkey seat," far back on the loins, which is used by
long before this,"whereas evidence of equid draught begins only in the earlier third
early horseback riders in this area, looks back to a long tradition of such riding.
millennium B.C.
1 Falkenstein 1936, nos. 741-742 (sledge). 743-745 (wagon); also Langdon 1924. pI. XXXI:
1-2 (sledge on stone tablet from Kish). Falkenstein (1936. 56. n.5) rejected the idea that signs
nos. 592-593 (MAR) indicate a vehicle rather than a spade; more positive views in Salonen
1951,194 with pI. 1:3; Zarins 1976, 413.
2 Discussion a.o.in Falkenstein 1936, 56; Salonen 1951, 79f.; Childe 1951, 178; 1954a, 3;
Piggott 1968a. 271f.; Littauer and Crouwel 1974. 28.
3 Herzfeld 1934, 203 withfig. p.223.
• 4 Impressions of a seal preserved on several fragmentary tablets from Uruk IVa (Lenzen
ill UVB IV, 1932,28with pl.14:c-f; Schottin UVB V, 1934.44.46withpI. 28: b-e) often said
to show part of a driver in a (not preserved) wheeled vehicle. d . Falkenstein 1936, 56; Nagel,
1966, If. Butanalysisof relativepositionsof remainingpartsofscene makesthisvery doubtful,
d . forsceptical views also van Buren 1939, 44;Amiet 1961, 95.
-~-'.'-;"-. -" 6 Falkenstein 1936. 52f.; (Uruk texts); also supra p. 10 (bones).