Water Resources and Natural Control Processes

511 Pages·1987·12.83 MB·English

by  Clark C. K. Liu (auth.)

HANDBOOK OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Volume 4
Water Resources and
Natural Control Processes
HANDBOOK OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Volume 1: Air and Noise Pollution Control
Volume 2: Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery
Volume 3: Biological Treatment Processes
Volume 4: Water Resources and Natural Control Processes
Volume 5: Physicochemical Technologies for Water and
Wastewater Treatment
HANDBOOK OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
Volume 4
Water Resources and
Natural Control
Processes
Edited by
Lawrence K. Wang
Lenox Institute for Research Inc.
Lenox, Massachusetts
and
Norman C. Pereira
Monsanto Company
St. Louis, Missouri
The HUMANA Press' Clifton, New Jersey
Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data
Water resources and natural control processes.
(Handbook of enviromental engineering; v. 4)
includes bibliographies and index.
1. Water quality management--Handbooks, manuals,
etc. 2. Water, Underground--Management--Handbooks,
manuals, etc. 3. Waste disposal in the ground-
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Wang, Lawrence K.
II. Pereira, Norman C. Ill. Series.
TD170.H37 vol. 4 [TD365] 628 s 86-18632
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9177-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-4822-4
DOl: 1O .l 007/978-1-4612-4822-4
© 1986 The HUMANA Press Inc .. Crescent Manor' P.O. Box 2148 . Clifton,
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition
NJ 07015
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission
from the Publisher.
Preface
The past few years have seen the emergence of a growing, widespread
desire in this country, and indeed everywhere, that positive actions be
taken to restore the quality of our environment, and to protect it from the
degrading effects of all forms of pollution-air, noise, solid waste, and
water. Since pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, if
there is no waste, there can be no pollution, and the seemingly idealistic
demand for "zero discharge" can be construed as a demand for zero
waste. However, as long as there is waste, we can only attempt to abate
the consequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. In those
instances in which a particular type of pollution has been recognized,
three major questions usually arise: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2)
Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement
justify the degree of abatement achieved? The principal intention of this
series of books on environmental engineering is to help the reader formu
late useful answers to the second and third of these questions, i.e., to
outline the best currently available engineering solutions, and to examine
their costs in the light of the real level of benefits afforded.
The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to
specific pollution problems has been a major factor contributing to the
success of environmental engineering, and in large measure has ac
counted for the establishment of a "methodology of pollution controL"
However, realizing the already great complexity of current environmental
problems, and understanding that, as time goes on, these issues will be
come even more complex and interrelated, render it imperative that intel
ligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequi
site to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential,
and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available
for environmental engineering. In this series of books, we are reviewing
at a practical tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (proc
esses, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or of potential
utility, for such pollution abatement. We believe that the unification of
v
vi PREFACE
the concepts and engineering methodology found in these books is a logi
cal step in the evolution of environmental engineering.
The treatment of the various engineering systems presented will
show how an engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from
the fundamental principles and theory of chemistry, physics, and mathe
matics. This emphasis on fundamental science is based on the recognition
that engineering practice has of necessity in recent years become more
firmly based on scientific principles, rather than depending so heavily on
our empirical accumulation of facts, as was earlier the case. It was not
intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to
the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily
amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we
have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism.
Since an engineer must understand science within a context of appli
cations, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a partic
ular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and
operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmen
tal quality control or improvement. Throughout, methods of practical de
sign calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples
clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most
direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have
been provided.
Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the
belief that the trained engineer should more finnly understand fundamen
tal principles, be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among
many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and origi
nality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution
problems. In short, the environmental engineer ought by conviction and
practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress.
Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering
has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through mUltiple
authorship. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ,
within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and
presenting a particular subject area, and consequently it has been difficult
to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing
to limitations of space, some of the authors' favored topics could not be
treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely
mentioned or commented on briefly. In addition, treatment of some well
established operations, such as distillation and solvent extraction, has
been totally omitted. All of the authors have provided an excellent list of
references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of the interested
reader. Each of the chapters is meant to be self-contained and conse-
PREFACE vii
quently some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In
each case, all errors of omission or repetition are the responsibility of the
editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward
metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a
problem. Wherever possible the authors have used the British System
(fps), along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU), or vice versa.
The authors sincerely hope that this inconsistency of units usage does not
prove to be disruptive to the reader.
The series has been organized in five volumes:
I. Air and Noise Pollution Control
II. Solid Waste Processing and Resource Recovery
III. Biological and Natural Control Processes
IV. Solids Separation and Treatment
V. Physicochemical Technologies for Water and Wastewater
Treatment
As can be seen from the above titles, no consideration is given to
pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants.
Rather, the above categorization has been based on the three basic forms
in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In
addition, noise pollution control is included in Volume 1.
This Engineering Handbook is designed to serve as a basic text as
well as a comprehensive reference book. We hope and expect it will
prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate or graduate stu
dents, to designers of pollution abatement systems, and to research work
ers. The editors welcome comments from readers. It is our hope that these
volumes will not only provide information on the various pollution abate
ment technologies, but will also serve as a basis for advanced study or
specialized investigation of the theory and practice of the individual engi
neering systems covered.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and sup
port received from their colleagues at the Environmental and Energy Sys
tems Department of Cal span Corporation during the conceptual stages of
this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time
and effort, and for having borne patiently our numerous queries and com
ments. Finally, we are grateful to our respective families for their pa
tience and understanding during some rather trying times.
LA WRENCE K. WANG
Lenox, Massachusetts
NORMAN C. PEREIRA
St. Louis, Missouri
Contents
Preface ........... ........................................ v
Contributors ............................................. xvii
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS I
CLARK C. K. LIU
I. Introduction.......... ... ......... .............. 1
II. Mathematical Simulation of the Surface Water System. 3
A. Water Quality Model Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Transport and Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C. Mathematical Model and Computer Application . . . 7
D. Modeling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
III. Oxygen Consumption and Replenishment in Receiving
Waters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. Biochemical Decay of Carbonaceous Waste
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. Nitrification...................... .......... . 15
C. Photosynthesis and Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
D. Sediment Oxygen Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
E. Atmospheric Reaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IV. Coliform Bacteria Die-Off. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
V. Modeling Application in Surface Water Quality. . . . . . . 24
A. River Analysis .............................. 24
B. Estuary Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
C. Lake Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
ix
x CONTENTS
Appendix A ........' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
CHAPTER 2
WATER QUALITY CONTROL OF TIDAL RIVERS AND
ESTUARIES............... .......................... 61
Mu HAO SUNG WANG AND LAWRENCE K. WANG
I. Introduction.................................... 61
II. Water Quality Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
A. Conservative Substances ...................... 62
B. Reactive Substances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
C. Sequentially Reactive Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
D. Surface Transfer Coefficient, Reaeration Coefficient,
and Deoxygenation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
E. Assimilation Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
F. Estuarine Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
G. Dispersion Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
H. Advective Velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
III. Basic Mathematical Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
IV . Working Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A. Steady-State Equations for Waste Concentrations in
Tidal Rivers and Estuaries Resulting from a Point
Source of Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
B. Steady-State Equations for Waste Concentrations in
Tidal Rivers and Estuaries Resulting from a
Distributed Source of Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
C. Alternate Working Models and Systems
Identification for Tidal Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
V. Practical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CHAPTER 3
COOLING OF THERMAL DISCHARGES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
WILLIAM W. SHUSTER
I. Introduction.................................... 107
CONTENTS xi
II. Cooling Ponds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
A. Mechanism of Heat Dissipation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
B. Design of Cooling Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
III. Cooling Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
A. Mechanism of Heat Dissipation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
B. Definitions.................................. 125
C. Types of Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
D. Problems Associated with Cooling Tower
Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
E. Costs .................................... ·· 136
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
CHAPTER 4
CONTROL OF RESERVOIRS AND LAKES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
DONALD B. AULENBACH
I. Introduction.................................... 139
II. Special Features of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
III. Hydrology..................................... 146
IV. Evaporation.................................... 157
V. Transpiration................................... 161
VI. Evapotranspiration............................... 161
VII. Infiltration and Percolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
VIII. Runoff........................................ 164
IX. Groundwater................................... 182
X. Impact of Pollution on Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
XI. Thermal Impacts on the Aquatic Environment . . . . . . . . 200
XII. Toxies in Water Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
XIII. Goals of Water Pollution Control .................. 210
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
CHAPTER 5
DEEP-WELL DISPOSAL.... ... .... ......... .... . ..... . 215
CHARLES W. SEVER
I. Introduction........... ......................... 215
II. Basic Well Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
III. Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well Site. . . . . . . . . 222