Water Quality Measurements Series: Detection Methods for Algae, Protozoa and Helminths in Fresh and Drinking Water

234 Pages·2002·13.18 MB·English

Detection Methods for Algae,
Protozoa and Helminths in Fresh
and Drinking Water
Detection Methods for Algae,
Protozoa and Helminths in Fresh
and Drinking Water
EDITED BY
FRANCA PALUMBO
Azienda Mediterranea Gas e Acqua S.p.A ., Genoa, Italy
GIULIANO ZIGLIO
Universita di Trento, Italy
AND& VAN DER BEKEN
Techware, Brussels, Belgium
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Contents
Series Preface ix
Preface xi
The Series Editor - Philippe Quevauviller xv
List of Contributors xvii
PART ONE: SANITARY AND TECHNICAL ASPECTS
1 Presence of Algae, Protozoa, Helminths in the Water Environment:
Significance, Sanitary Implications and Preventive Measures 3
S. Kanih and Y Franco
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Algae 4
1.3 Protozoa 6
1.4 Nematodes 7
1.5 Bloodworms or Midges (Chironomid Larvae) 8
1.6 Actinomycetes 9
1.7 Iron and Sulphur Bacteria 10
1.8 Nitrifying Bacteria 12
1.9 Crustacea 13
1.10 Rotifers 13
1.1 1 Zebra Mussels 14
1.12 Conclusions 15
References 16
2 Water Potabilization Plant in the Presence of Algae, Protozoa and
Helminths 19
L. Coccagna and G. Ziglio
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Separation Technology 20
2.3 Oxidation Treatments for Disinfection 30
vi Contents
2.4 Surface Water Treatment Plant 35
2.5 Conclusions 42
References 43
3 Biological Methods in Managing Problems in Water Works and
Distribution Systems 45
A. SladeEkova
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Biological Criteria of the Czech Drinking Water Standard 50
3.3 Other Standards, Regulations and Recommended Methods 52
3.4 Application of Biological Methods in Water Supply Systems 55
3.5 Conclusions 66
References 66
PART TWO: ALGAE HELMINTHS
AND
4 An Overview of Counting Methods for Algae 71
G. Bowe
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Description of Sampling Methods 72
4.3 Description of the Subsampling Procedures 73
4.4 Description of the Counting Techniques 74
4.5 Considerations Regarding the Use of the Microscope 76
4.6 Algae as Bioindicators 77
4.7 Conclusions 80
References 81
5 Extraction and Determination of Chlorophylls 83
G. Bowe
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Description of Methods and Comments 83
5.3 Procedures 86
References 89
6 Phytoplankton Analysis Using Flow Cytometry 91
S. Sgorbati
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 A Brief History of FCM 92
6.3 Application of FCM to Aquatic Science 94
6.4 Pigment Autofluorescence and Probes for FCM Analysis of Phytoplankton 96
6.5 Species Identification with FCM: Oligonucleotides and Neural Network
Analysis 100
6.6 Conclusions 101
References 102
Contents vii
7 Methods for Cyanobacterial Toxin Detection 107
J Rapala and K. Lahti
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Cyanobacterial Toxins 108
7.3 Bioassays 112
7.4 Biochemical and Immunological Methods 113
7.5 Chemical Methods 115
7.6 Integrated Analysis of Cyanobacterial Toxins 123
References 124
Appendix 1 128
8 Hygiene and Health Aspects and Interpretation of Data Related
to the Presence of Helminths in Water for Human Consumption 133
L. Bonadonna and G. Bezziccheri
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Helminths, Drinking Water and Health Effects 134
8.3 Collection and Processing Techniques for Helminths 136
8.4 Recommendations for the Development of an Analytical Method for
Determination of Helminths 137
8.5 Conclusions 140
References 140
PART THREE: PROTOZOA
9 Pathogenic Protozoa in Fresh and Drinking Water 143
D. Gold and H. c! Smith
9.1 Introduction 143
9.2 The Parasites 145
9.3 Infectious Dose 148
9.4 The Disease 148
9.5 Laboratory Diagnosis 150
9.6 Transmission Routes 151
9.7 Impact of Water Catchment on Raw Water Quality 153
9.8 Methods for Dectecting Waterborne Oocysts and Cysts 154
9.9 Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Gardia in Water 161
9.10 Conclusions 162
References 162
10 An Overview of Concentraction Techniques for Giurdiu and
Cryptosporidium 167
E. Carraro
10.1 Introduction 167
10.2 Description of Concentration Methods 168
10.3 Conclusions 174
... Contents
Vlll
References 177
11 An Overview of Identification Methods in Use for Giurdiu and
Cryptosporidium 179
E. Carruro and Pulumbo
1 1.1 Introduction 179
1 1.2 Sample Purification Methods 180
1 1.3 Methods for the Analytical Determination of Cysts and Oocysts 183
1 1.4 Conclusions 189
References 189
12 Viability of Cryptosporidium Oocysts and Giurdiu Cysts 193
J E. O’Grady and H. k! Smith
12.1 Introduction 193
12.2 Viability 195
12.3 Infectivity 203
12.4 Conclusions 212
References 214
Index 221
Series Preface
Water is a fundamental constituent of life and is essential to a wide range of
economic activities. It is also a limited resource, as we are frequently reminded by
the tragic effects of drought in certain parts of the world. Even in areas with high
precipitation, and in major river basins, over-use and mismanagement of water
have created severe constraints on availability. Such problems are widespread and
will be made more acute by the accelerating demands on fresh water arising from
trends in economic development.
Despite the fact that water-resource management is essentially a local, river
basin-based activity, there are a number of areas of action that are relevant to all or
significant parts of the European Union, and as a result it is advisable to pool
efforts for the purpose of understanding relevant phenomena (e.g., pollution, geo-
chemical studies), developing technical solutions andor defining management
procedures. One of the keys to successful cooperation aimed at studying hydrol-
ogy, water monitoring, biological activity etc., is to establish and ensure good
water quality measurements.
Measurements of quality are essential to demonstrate the comparability of data
obtained worldwide and they form the basis for appropriate decision-making
related to management of water resources, monitoring issues, biological quality
etc. In addition to the necessary quality control tools developed for various types
of physical, chemical and biological measurements, there is a great need for
education and training related to water quality measurement. This need has been
recognized by the European Commision which has funded a series of training
courses on this topic, covering aspects such as monitoring and measurement of
lake recipients, measurement of heavy metals and organic compounds in drinking
and surface water, use of biotic indexes, and methods for identification and
quantitation of algae, protozoa and helminthes.
This book series will ensure a wide coverage of issues related to water quality
measurements, in particular the topics covered in the above-mentioned courses. In
addition, other aspects related to methods of quality control (e.g., certified
reference materials for the quality control of water analysis) and waste-water
monitoring will also be considered.
The present book, Detection Methods for Algae, Protozoa and Helminths in
Fresh and Drinking Water, is the second one of the series. It has been written by
Series Preface
x
experts in water biology and offers the reader an extensive overview of all the
important aspects that need to be considered when studying sanitary problems
related to water potabilization, including biological methods for the analysis of
algae, protozoa and helminthes.
The Series Editor - Philippe Quevauviller
PREFACE
The specific aim of the course which this book refers to, is to consider a few
potentially disease-causing biological agents - Algae, Protozoa, Helminths -
through the entire water cycle.
Particular attention is to be paid by specialists working in the water sector to
analytical aspects and also to other relevant issues related to epidemiology,
toxicology, sanitary engineering and plant technology, in order to reach an
integrated and clear strategy for carrying out surveillance, quality control, preven-
tion and remedial measures.
These biological agents, which can be of natural origin or related to human
activities, have different potential impact and significance in the water cycle:
Algae can have direct and indirect effects on water resources at ecological level
and directhndirect effects on human health, due to the presence of toxigenic
algae and by-products formed during the treatment (oxidatioddisinfection
stages).
Protozoa - in particular cysts of Giardia and oocysts of Cvptosporidium -
can be a significant risk factor and have been documented to be responsible for
outbreaks of waterborne diseases.
Free-living species of Nematoda can be responsible for aesthetic and so-called
nuisance problems in the water distribution systems in temperate European
countries, as the probability of pathogenic microorganisms being harboured by
helminths in the final water product, is only very remote.
The presence of these biological organisms through the water cycle has a strong
impact on treatment technologies and monitoring strategies at different levels. A
characteristic which is common to all these biological agents is their dimensions
which are in the order of several microns and which are significantly larger than
those of the more common water contaminants, pathogenic bacteria. For this
reason, filtration technologies have a major role in controlling their removal.