Water Encyclopedia: Oceanography; Meteorology; Physics and Chemistry; Water Law; and Water History, Art, and Culture

956 Pages·2005·41.25 MB·English

by  Jay H. Lehr

WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA
OCEANOGRAPHY;
METEOROLOGY;
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY;
WATER LAW; AND WATER
HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE
WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA
Editor-in-Chief EditorialStaff
Jay Lehr, Ph.D. Vice President,STM Books: Janet Bailey
EditorialDirector, STM Encyclopedias:
SeniorEditor Sean Pidgeon
Jack Keeley Executive Editor: BobEsposito
Director, BookProductionand Manufacturing:
AssociateEditor CamilleP. Carter
Janet Lehr ProductionManager: Shirley Thomas
Senior ProductionEditor: Kellsee Chu
InformationTechnologyDirector IllustrationManager: Dean Gonzalez
ThomasB. Kingery III EditorialProgramCoordinator:JonathanRose
WATER ENCYCLOPEDIA
OCEANOGRAPHY;
METEOROLOGY;
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY;
WATER LAW; AND WATER
HISTORY, ART, AND CULTURE
Jay Lehr, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
Jack Keeley
Senior Editor
Janet Lehr
Associate Editor
Thomas B. Kingery III
Information Technology Director
TheWaterEncyclopediaisavailableonlineat
http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/eow/
A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
Copyright2005byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
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Lehr,Jay
WaterEncyclopedia:Oceanography;Meteorology;PhysicsandChemistry;WaterLaw;andWater
History,Art,andCulture
ISBN0-471-73684-8
ISBN0-471-44164-3(Set)
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
CONTENTS
Preface ix ThePermanentServiceforMeanSeaLevel 118
Contributors xi MarineandEstuarineMicroalgalSediment
ToxicityTests 120
MarineStockEnhancementTechniques 124
Oceanography
PhysicalandChemicalVariabilityofTidal
Air–SeaInteraction 1 Streams 128
NOAA’sAtlanticOceanographicand BlackWaterTurnstheTideonFloridaCoral 133
MeteorologicalLaboratory 4 ShallowWaterWaves 135
LaboratoryExperimentsOnBivalveExcretion WaterWaves 138
RatesofNutrients 6 WoodsHole:TheEarlyYears 139
TemporalScalingofBenthicNutrient AnAnalysisoftheInternationalMaritime
RegenerationinBivalve-DominatedTidalFlat 11 Organization–LondonConventionAnnual
Breakwaters 14 OceanDumpingReports 144
TheOceaninClimate 21 MarineSourcesofHalocarbons 149
CoastalWaters 23 FoodChain/Foodweb/FoodCycle 151
MarineColloids 27 Plankton 154
DeepWaterCorals 32 MajorIonsinSeawater 159
MarineDebrisAbatement 38 Tsunami 160
LarvaeandSmallSpeciesofPolychaetesin
MarineToxicologicalTesting 42
Meteorology
ElNin˜o:TheInterannualPredictionProblem 43
RenewableEnergiesfromtheOcean 44
BallooningandMeteorologyintheTwentieth
EstuarianWaters 49
Century 164
NOS/NMFSCooperativeResearchonCoastal
BarometricEfficiency 166
FisheriesandHabitatsattheBeaufort
CERES:UnderstandingTheEarth’sCloudsand
Laboratory 55
Climate 169
DistributionandDynamicsofGasHydratesin
Chinook 170
theMarineEnvironment 57
GlobalClimateChange 171
OceanographicEnvironmentofGlacierBay 61
ObservationsofClimateandGlobalChangefrom
NOSSanctuariesProtectNation’sMaritime
Real-TimeMeasurements 172
History 62
Overview:TheClimateSystem 179
QuantificationofAnoxiaandHypoxiainWater
ClimateandSociety 183
Bodies 64
WhatisClimatology? 186
FloatingIce 69
CloudSeeding 187
TechnologyDevelopment:Hardware
Condensation 188
Development—MarineInstrumentation
CosmicWater 189
Laboratory(MIL) 70
TheWaterCycle 191
SeasonalCouplingBetweenIntertidal
Cyclones 194
MacrofaunaandSedimentColumnPorewater
WaterCycle 196
NutrientConcentrations 73
DegreeDayMethod 197
MappingtheSeaFlooroftheHistoricArea
Desertification 199
RemediationSite(HARS)OffshoreofNew
Dew 200
YorkCity 77
NOAAandUniversityScientistsStudyMethyl DewDeserts 201
BromideCyclingintheNorthPacific 80 DewPoint 207
TidallyMediatedChangesinNutrient Droughts 208
Concentrations 81 DroughtIndices 209
TheRoleofOceansintheGlobalCyclesof TheEarthObservingSystem:Aqua 214
Climatically-ActiveTrace-Gases 85 EntropyTheoryForHydrologicModeling 217
PacificMarineEnvironmentalLaboratory—30 Evaporation 223
YearsofObservingTheOcean 89 Evapotranspiration 226
SeawaterTemperatureEstimatesin Fog 229
Paleoceanography 92 CoastalFogAlongtheNorthernGulfofMexico 230
PhysicalOceanography 95 RainForests 239
CoastalWaterPollutants 96 Frost 240
TraceElementPollution 109 FrostDamage 241
CoralReefsandYourCoastalWatershed 113 TheGlobalWaterCycle 242
SeaLevelandClimate 117 Ground-BasedGPSMeteorologyatFSL 244
v
vi CONTENTS
ClimateandWaterBalanceontheIslandof CoagulationandFlocculation 424
Hawaii 255 Conductivity-Electric 429
HeatofVaporization 263 ConservationandtheWaterCycle 433
HydrologicHistory,Problems,andPerspectives 265 Defluroidation 434
Humidity—Absolute 269 Deuterium 438
RelativeHumidity 270 DistilledWater 441
Hurricanes:ModelingNature’sFury 274 ElectricityasaFluid 442
HydrologicCycle 275 AnalysisofAqueousSolutionsUsing
Hydrosphere 283 ElectrosprayIonizationMassSpectrometry
HydrologicCycle,WaterResources,andSociety 287 (esims) 443
IsohyetalMethod 290 Fenton’sReactionandGroundwater
WhatAboutMeteorology? 292 Remediation 445
BasicResearchforMilitaryApplications 295 WhereWaterFloats 448
UncertaintiesinRainfall–RunoffModeling 297 Freshwater 449
Monsoon 304 DissolvedGases 450
AfricanMonsoons 304 HardWater 452
PermanentFrost 305 AnAnalysisofTheImpactofWateronHealth
RadarUseinRainfallMeasurements 306 andAging:IsAllWaterTheSame? 455
Rainfall 309 HeavyWater 462
RainfallandRunoff 315 Henry’sLaw 466
RemoteSensingofApplicationsinHydrology 319 HofmeisterEffects 468
AtmosphericScientists 328 ClathrateHydrates 471
RainSimulators 330 Hydration 475
SnowDensity 333 TheMirageofTheH Economy 477
2
FlattopMountainSnotelSnowpack:WaterYear HydrogenIon 480
2004 334 TheHydroniumIon 482
SnowandSnowmelt 336 InfiltrationandSoilMoistureProcesses 484
SnowSurveys 337 IonExchangeandInorganicAdsorption 490
AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriod Iron 496
Analysis 338 Isotopes 499
Sublimation 343
IsotopeFractionation 500
Transpiration 345
MariotteBottle—UseinHydrology 503
Waterspout 347
MarsExplorationRoverMission 504
UnitedStatesWeatherBureau 347 RemovalofOrganicMicropollutantsandMetal
WeatherForecastingThroughTheAges 348 IonsfromAqueousSolutionsbyActivated
OverviewofWeatherSystems 352 Carbons 506
UnitHydrographTheory 355 MolecularNetworkDynamics 511
WeatherandtheAtmosphere 360 InSituChemicalMonitoring 514
VaporPressure 362 Nitrogen 517
AdiabaticCooling 366 Osmosis-DiffusionofSolventorCausedby
RainandRocks:TheRecipeforRiverWater DiffusionofSolutes? 520
Chemistry 371 PartitioningandBioavailability 521
PhysicalProperties 527
Physicsand Chemistryof Water
EnvironmentalPhotochemistryinSurface
Waters 529
AcidRainandSociety 377
IsotopeExchangeinGas-WaterReactions 535
AdsorptionCapacityofActivatedCarbonfor
RadoninWater 541
WaterPurification 381
AdsorptionofOrganicCompounds 384 SilicainNaturalWaters 548
AgeDatingOldGroundwater 388 SodiuminNaturalWaters 551
Ammonia 390 SoftWater 553
BerylliuminWater 394 SolubilityofChemicalsinWater 555
DissolvedOrganicCarbon 399 SolubilityofHydrocarbonsinSaltWater 559
MechanismsofWaterAdsorptiononCarbons 400 SolubilityofHydrocarbonsandSulfur
TheEffectofCarbonSurfaceChemical CompoundsinWater 561
CompositionontheMechanismofPhenol SorptionKinetics 564
AdsorptionfromAqueousSolutions 404 SoundinWater 569
CarbonateGeochemistry 408 WaterontheSpaceStation 572
CarbonateinNaturalWaters 413 StrontiumIsotopesinWaterandRock 574
Chlorine-36andVeryOldGroundwaters 416 TechnetiuminWater 578
Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) 420 Water—Nature’sMagician 583
CONTENTS vii
FreezingandSupercoolingofWater 585 WaterBetweenArabsandIsraelis:Researching
ChemicalPrecipitation 586 Twice-PromisedResources 699
AntimonyinAquaticSystems 589 TheMythofBadCholesterol:WhyWaterIsA
BetterCholesterol-LoweringMedication 701
Water Law and Economics EarlyClocks 702
WaterClocks 704
TheCleanWaterAct 595
OurEvolvingWaterConsciousness 707
CleanWaterAct,WaterQuality
EffectiveWaterEducationStrategiesina
Criteria/Standards,TMDLs,and
NontraditionalSetting 713
Weight-of-EvidenceApproachforRegulating
Evolution 715
WaterQuality 598
HistoryofPondFisheriesinPoland 718
TheConstitutionandEarlyAttemptsat
RationalWaterPlanning 604 Water:TheKeytoNaturalHealthAnd
Healing 722
EconomicValueofWater:Estimation 605
WaterinHistory 726
WaterSupplyPlanning—Federal 612
HooverDamHistory 732
FloodControlActof1944 616
Hydropsychology 733
GreatLakesGovernors’Agreement 617
Jacob’sWell 735
U.S./CanadianBoundaryWatersTreatyandthe
JaubertdePassa:TheFirstWorldHistoryof
GreatLakesWaterQualityAgreement 620
GreatLakesWaterQualityInitiative 621 Irrigationin1846 736
BenjaminFranklin:FromKitetoLightning
QuantitativeGroundWaterLaw 627
Rod 741
IslamicWaterLaw 634
WaterandtheHistoryofMan 745
TransboundaryWatersinLatinAmerica:
Water,Bacteria,LifeonMars,andMicrobial
ConflictsandCollaboration 636
Diversity 746
UnitedStates-MexicoBorderWaters:
CanalsintheMekongDelta:AHistorical
Conventions,Treaties,andInstitutions 643
NegotiatingbetweenAuthorityandPolluters: Overviewfrom200C.E.tothePresent 748
ConflictandWaterUseintheMiddle
AnApproachtoManagingWaterQuality 647
East 753
WaterResourceOrganizations 648
BenjaminFranklin’sArmonica:AWaterMusic
ABriefHistoryoftheWaterPollutionControl
Instrument 758
ActintheU.S. 651
WaterTransportationOccupations 762
TheNationalPollutionDischargeElimination
AConciseGlimpseofWaterintheHistoryof
System 655
Photography 766
LegalProtectionforIn-streamFlow 659
WaterasaHumanRight 769
WaterQuality 664
AncientWaterandSoilConservation
InterfacebetweenFederalWaterQuality
EcosystemsofSriLanka 772
RegulationandStateAllocationofWater
BenFranklin’sGulfStreamWeatherandSwim
Quantity 671
Fins 780
RegulatoryIssuesandRemediation:Risk,Costs,
WaterSymbolism 785
andBenefits 674
GordonandFranklinRiversandtheTasmanian
TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct 676
WildernessWorldHeritageArea 788
RepresentingGeopoliticsof(Hydro)Bordersin
TheMistakeofWaitingtoGetThirsty 789
SouthAsia 680
WaterandWell-Being 791
WaterTransfers 685
FreeFlowingWater:ASourceof
ReservedWaterRightsforIndianandFederal
Wisdom 793
Lands 689
TheMedicinalPropertiesoftheWatersof
WetlandsPolicyintheUnitedStates:From
SaratogaSprings 797
DrainagetoRestoration 690
AHistoryofHawaiianFreshwater
Water History, Art, and Culture Resources 801
CuriousUsesofAgriculturalWaterinthe
World 695 Volume Index missing
Cumulative Index (from Volume 5) following p. 807
PREFACE
Nonaturalmoleculeontheplanetismorefascinatingthan But water has a wonderful human face as well. We
water.Ithasuniquepropertiesrangingfromtheunusual have reached around the world to describe the history
anglesformedbetweenitstwohydrogenionsanditssingle of water and its role in the development of civilizations
oxygenmolecule,tothefactthatunlikemostsubstances,it and the many beliefs held about it. As society developed,
expandswhenitfreezesratherthanshrinksandreaches the distribution of water needed supervision, which lead
◦
a maximum density as a liquid 4 F above its freezing to a wide variety of water laws we have attempted to
point.Theseandmanyotheraspectsofthespecialphysics categorizeanddescribeinaninterestingandmeaningful
andchemistryaredescribedinthisvolume,includingthe way.
impact of a wide variety of chemicals occurring in water, We are equally proud of our open-minded effort to
osmosis,diffusion,hydration,isotopeexchange,alongwith describetherolethatwaterhasplayedinartandculture.
thefunphysicsofthemariottebottle. We have attempted not be judgmental, with stories of
Equallyfascinatingarethemanyunusualphysicaland water forms and water intelligence along with some
chemicalencountersinboththeoceanandtheatmosphere. medicaltheoriesand,ofcourse,thewonderfuldescriptions
Although oceanography and meteorology are frequently of early water clocks. This volume is a true intellectual
consideredseparatesciencesfromhydrology,theirlimited cornucopia of water in the life of humankind on a
inclusionintheWaterEncyclopediawasdeemednecessary personallevel.
totellthecompletestory.Tidalchanges,benthicnutrients, Weareconfidentthatinthecomingyearsandeditions
the sea floor, el nino, sea level, and ocean/climate of the Water Encyclopedia, this volume will expand with
relationshipsmakeupbutafewoftheoceansfascinating more participation from individuals working in unusual
stories, whereas water spouts, hurricanes, monsoons, fieldsrelatingtowater.
droughts,sublimation,andbarometricefficiencyjusttouch
the tip of what this volume has in store in the area of JayLehr
meteorology. JackKeeley
ix
CONTRIBUTORS
M.Abad,UniversidaddeHuelva.Avda.delasFuerzasArmadas,Huelva, Eli Dahi, Environmental Development Corporation, Søborg, Denmark,
AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriodAnalysis Defluroidation
EdinaraAdelaideBoss,Artur-Nogueira-SP,Brazil,Sublimation CarlW. David, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, The
Joseph H. Aldstadt, III, Genetic Technologies, Inc. Testing Institute, HydroniumIon
Waukesha,Wisconsin,InSituChemicalMonitoring Jana Davis, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater,
AlaskaBiologicalScienceCenter—U.S.GeologicalSurvey, Oceano- Maryland,MarineStockEnhancementTechniques
graphicEnvironmentofGlacierBay Christine Dickenson, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,
Sergio Alonso, University of the Balearic, Palma de Mallorca, Spain, Florida, An Analysis of the International Maritime Organiza-
RelativeHumidity tion–LondonConventionAnnualOceanDumpingReports
MariedeAngelis,HumboldtStateUniversity,Arcata,California,Major Robert E. Dickinson, (from The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and
IonsinSeawater Water:Dynamics,Climate,PhysicalMeteorology,WeatherSystems,and
CarolynAnnKoh,ColoradoSchoolofMines,Golden,Colorado,Clathrate Measurements,Wiley2003),Overview:TheClimateSystem
Hydrates,Hydration PriyankaK.Dissanayake,Moratuwa,SriLanka,EstuarianWaters
Yoseph Negusse Araya, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Iver W. Duedall, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida,
Kingdom,Hydrosphere An Analysis of the International Maritime Organization–London
ConventionAnnualOceanDumpingReports
AnnAzadpour-Keeley,NationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory,
ORD,U.S.EPA,Ada,Oklahoma,WaterandtheHistoryofMan Sandra Dunbar, Napier University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United
Kingdom,PartitioningandBioavailability
W.D. Bach,Jr., (from The Handbook of Weather, Climate, and Water:
Dynamics, Climate, Physical Meteorology, Weather Systems, and Antonı´n Dvorˇa´k, University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic,
Measurements,Wiley2003),BasicResearchforMilitaryApplications NegotiatingbetweenAuthorityandPolluters:AnApproachtoManaging
WaterQuality
PatrickL.Barry,NASA,WaterontheSpaceStation
David R. Easterling, (from Handbook of Weather, Climate, and
F.Batmanghelidj,GlobalHealthSolutions,FallsChurch,Virginia,The
Water:Dynamics,Climate,PhysicalMeteorology,WeatherSystems,and
MythofBadCholesterol:WhyWaterIsABetterCholesterol-Lowering
Measurements,Wiley2003),ObservationsofClimateandGlobalChange
Medication,Water:TheKeytoNaturalHealthAndHealing,TheMistake
fromReal-TimeMeasurements
ofWaitingtoGetThirsty
TheodoreA.Endreny,SUNY-ESF,Syracuse,NewYork,RemoteSensing
M.EricBenbow,MichiganStateUniversity,EastLansing,Michigan,A
of Applications in Hydrology, Evaporation, Radar Use in Rainfall
HistoryofHawaiianFreshwaterResources
Measurements,RainfallandRunoff
MikeBettwy,GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,NASA,AfricanMonsoons
EnvironmentCanada, Water—Nature’sMagician
DavidBiggs,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington,Canalsin
TimothyErickson,NationalWeatherServiceNewOrleans/BatonRouge
theMekongDelta:AHistoricalOverviewfrom200C.E.tothePresent
ForecastOffice,Slidell,Louisiana,CoastalFogAlongtheNorthernGulf
Jessica Black, NOAA/CREST CCNY, New York, New York, Remote
ofMexico
SensingofApplicationsinHydrology
Kirsten Exall, NationalWaterResearchInstitute,Burlington, Ontario,
PeterE. Black, SUNY ESF, Syracuse, New York, Water Resource
Canada,CoagulationandFlocculation
Organizations
DavidL.Feldman,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,Tennessee,Water
Julia´n Blasco, Institute of Marine Sciencesof Analucia, Cadiz, Spain,
SupplyPlanning—Federal,WaterTransfers
MarineandEstuarineMicroalgalSedimentToxicityTests
MontserratFilella,UniversityofGeneva,Geneva,Switzerland,Antimony
M. Bostro¨m, Linko¨ping University, Linko¨ping, Sweden, Hofmeister
inAquaticSystems
Effects,DissolvedGases
Sylwester Furmaniak, N. Copernicus University, Torun´, Poland,
Kristofor R. Brye, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas,
MechanismsofWaterAdsorptiononCarbons
Nitrogen
PiotrA.Gauden,N.CopernicusUniversity,Torun´,Poland,TheEffect
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Water ofCarbonSurfaceChemicalCompositionontheMechanismofPhenol
TransportationOccupations AdsorptionfromAqueousSolutions,MechanismsofWaterAdsorption
BureauofReclamation—U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior, Hoover onCarbons
DamHistory Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory—NOAA, El Nin˜o: The
RobertM.Burgess,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Narragansett, InterannualPredictionProblem,Hurricanes:ModelingNature’sFury,
RhodeIsland,Ammonia GlobalClimateChange
Albert J. Burky, University ofDayton, Dayton, Ohio, A History of AndreaK.Gerlak,ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,NewYork,Wetlands
HawaiianFreshwaterResources PolicyintheUnitedStates:FromDrainagetoRestoration
James Butler,ClimateMonitoringandDiagnosticsLaboratory,NOAA MichaelH.Glantz,(fromTheHandbookofWeather,Climate,andWater:
andUniversityScientistsStudyMethylBromideCyclingintheNorth AtmosphericChemistry,Hydrology,andSocietalImpacts,Wiley2003),
Pacific ClimateandSociety
BradfordButman,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,MappingtheSeaFloorofthe GlobalChangeResearchProgram—U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Flattop
HistoricAreaRemediationSite(HARS)OffshoreofNewYorkCity MountainSnotelSnowpack:WaterYear2004
PietroChiavaccini,Universita´diPisa,Pisa,Italy,ShallowWaterWaves, Jyotsna Goel, Centre for Fire, Explosives, and Environmental Safety,
Breakwaters Timarpur,India,IonExchangeandInorganicAdsorption
G.G. Clarke, University of Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii, Climate and Water KellyGoodwin,Universityof Miami,NOAA andUniversityScientists
BalanceontheIslandofHawaii StudyMethylBromideCyclingintheNorthPacific
Jay Clausen, AMEC Earth and Environmental, Inc., Westford, Mas- DavidM. Gray, Mettler-Toledo Thornton Inc., Bedford, Massachusetts,
sachusetts,TechnetiuminWater,BerylliuminWater Conductivity-Electric
AldoConti,Frascati(RM),Italy,FloatingIce,Condensation,Desertifica- Great LakesEnvironmentalResearch Laboratory(NOAA), Tech-
tion,Dew,DistilledWater,Isotopes,RainForests,DewPoint nologyDevelopment:HardwareDevelopment—MarineInstrumentation
Giuseppe Cortese, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Laboratory(MIL)
Research(AWI),Bremerhaven,Germany,Seawater TemperatureEsti- SethI.Gutman,NOAAForecastSystemsLaboratory,Ground-BasedGPS
matesinPaleoceanography MeteorologyatFSL
SaraCotton,UniversityofMiami,NOAAandUniversityScientistsStudy JanuszGuziur,UniversityofWarmiaandMazuryinOlsztyn,Olsztyn,
MethylBromideCyclingintheNorthPacific Poland,HistoryofPondFisheriesinPoland
L.M. Ca´ceres, Universidadde Huelva. Avda. de las FuerzasArmadas, DavidHaley,Picacadilly,Ulverston,Cumbria,UnitedKingdom,Water
Huelva,AStatisticalApproachtoCriticalStormPeriodAnalysis andWell-Being,Evolution
xi