Table Of ContentWater and Climate Change
Water and Climate Change
Sustainable Development, Environmental
and Policy Issues
Edited by
Trevor M. Letcher
School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa
Elsevier
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Contents
List of contributors..............................................................................................xvii
Preface.................................................................................................................xix
Section A Introduction..................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1:Introduction: water, the vital chemical.................................................... 3
Trevor M. Letcher
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................3
1.2 The unique chemical properties of water...............................................................4
1.2.1 The polar nature of water............................................................................4
1.2.2 The high enthalpy of vaporization of water................................................4
1.2.3 The high heat capacity of water..................................................................5
1.2.4 The anomalous density of frozen water.......................................................5
1.2.5 Water, the “universal” solvent....................................................................6
1.2.6 Acid(cid:1)base property....................................................................................7
1.2.7 High surface tension, low viscosity, and cohesive and adhesive
properties....................................................................................................7
1.3 Water and climate change......................................................................................8
1.4 The origin of water on Earth..................................................................................9
1.4.1 The water cycle...........................................................................................9
1.5 The scarcity of water...........................................................................................10
1.6 Conclusions.........................................................................................................10
References...................................................................................................................10
Chapter 2:The root causes of climate change and the role played by water............. 13
Trevor M. Letcher
2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................13
v
vi Contents
2.2 Water and CO and the greenhouse effect...........................................................14
2
2.3 The main greenhouse gases of anthropogenic origin............................................16
2.4 Feedback mechanisms and tipping points............................................................18
2.5 Where are we in solving the problem of global heating?.....................................19
2.6 Solutions..............................................................................................................22
2.7 Conclusion...........................................................................................................25
References...................................................................................................................25
Chapter 3:Water resource planning and climate change........................................ 27
Rabee Rustum, Adebayo J. Adeloye and Quan Dau
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................27
3.2 Climate change and water budget components.....................................................28
3.3 Water reservoirs...................................................................................................29
3.3.1 Indices of reservoir performance...............................................................30
3.3.2 Reservoir operation...................................................................................31
3.3.3 Climate change effect on reservoir performance in the Indus Basin..........32
3.4 Conclusions.........................................................................................................38
References...................................................................................................................38
Chapter 4:Potential impacts of climate change on biogeochemical cycling................ 41
Daniel A. Vallero
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................41
4.2 Thermodynamics of cycling.................................................................................42
4.3 Partitioning..........................................................................................................45
4.3.1 Dissolution................................................................................................45
4.3.2 Sorption....................................................................................................47
4.4 Biochemodynamics..............................................................................................49
4.5 Biogeochemistry of oxygen in water....................................................................55
4.6 The carbon cycle and greenhouse effect..............................................................57
4.7 Conclusions.........................................................................................................59
References...................................................................................................................59
Further reading.............................................................................................................62
Section B Sustainable development and environmental issues.................. 63
Chapter 5:Water quality engineering: physical, chemical, and biological
treatment for a sustainable future ....................................................... 65
Daniel A. Vallero
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................65
Contents vii
5.2 Water quality.....................................................................................................66
5.3 Chemical processes............................................................................................69
5.4 Wastewater treatment.........................................................................................73
5.5 Water treatment to manage risks........................................................................79
5.6 Disposal of sludge..............................................................................................80
5.7 Mixed reactors...................................................................................................82
5.8 Aerobic reactors.................................................................................................83
5.9 Anaerobic reactors.............................................................................................86
5.10 Treating contaminated ground water..................................................................89
5.11 Conclusions.......................................................................................................92
References...................................................................................................................92
Chapter 6:Urban water supplies in developing countries with a focus on
climate change.................................................................................... 95
Josephine Treacy
6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................95
6.2 Urbanization in developing countries...................................................................97
6.3 Urban water supplies...........................................................................................97
6.3.1 Source waters............................................................................................99
6.3.2 Other water sources innovative needs.....................................................100
6.3.3 Urban water supplies as a resource.........................................................101
6.3.4 Centralized and noncentralized water supplies........................................101
6.4 Climate change challenges and urban waters.....................................................102
6.4.1 Water Supplies and demand....................................................................103
6.5 Waste management and climate change and its impact on urban water.............104
6.6 Opportunities and global initiatives....................................................................104
6.6.1 Adaptation and mitigation.......................................................................105
6.6.2 Understanding the water baseline............................................................105
6.6.3 Environmental impact modeling risk......................................................105
6.7 Water security....................................................................................................106
6.7.1 Policy makers.........................................................................................106
6.8 Conclusions.......................................................................................................107
References.................................................................................................................109
Further reading...........................................................................................................112
Chapter 7: Water purity and sustainable water treatment systems for
developing countries...........................................................................115
Joanne Mac Mahon
7.1 Introduction: access to clean water in developing countries...............................115
viii Contents
7.2 Environmental challenges to water purity in developing countries.....................118
7.3 WHO guidelines for water purity.......................................................................120
7.3.1 Microbial guidelines...............................................................................120
7.3.2 Chemical guidelines................................................................................121
7.3.3 Radiological guidelines...........................................................................122
7.3.4 Acceptability: taste, odor, appearance.....................................................122
7.3.5 Other considerations...............................................................................122
7.4 Water supply sources used in developing countries...........................................123
7.5 Water treatment systems used in developing countries......................................124
7.5.1 Centralized water treatment systems.......................................................124
7.5.2 Decentralized water treatment systems....................................................126
7.5.3 Water Safety Plans..................................................................................126
7.5.4 Commonly used water treatment methods...............................................128
7.5.5 Water storage..........................................................................................132
7.6 Sustainable water management systems.............................................................133
7.7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................135
References.................................................................................................................136
Chapter 8:Water purification techniques for the developing world........................145
Aniruddha B. Pandit and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
8.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................145
8.2 Water purification methodologies....................................................................147
8.3 Solar treatment and its intensification..............................................................147
8.4 Water disinfection by boiling...........................................................................150
8.5 Chemical treatment..........................................................................................152
8.6 Filtration techniques.........................................................................................154
8.6.1 Traditional filtration methods................................................................154
8.6.2 Recent advances/modifications in traditional filtration methods............156
8.6.3 Hybrid filtration methods......................................................................158
8.7 Natural treatment methods...............................................................................159
8.8 Cavitation-based water hand pumps.................................................................160
8.9 Sustainable disinfection of harvested rainwater................................................163
8.10 Recent research on emerging methods.............................................................166
8.10.1 Filtration.............................................................................................166
8.10.2 Solar disinfection................................................................................166
8.10.3 Hybrid techniques...............................................................................167
8.11 Impact of Covid 19 pandemic on the water sector in developing countries......168
8.12 Comparison of various purification techniques................................................170
8.13 Conclusions.....................................................................................................173
Contents ix
8.14 Recommendations for future work...................................................................174
References.................................................................................................................174
Chapter 9:Plastic pollution in waterways and in the oceans..................................179
Lei Mai, Hui He and Eddy Y. Zeng
9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................179
9.2 Global marine plastic pollution..........................................................................180
9.2.1 Sources of marine plastic debris..............................................................180
9.2.2 Distribution of microplastics in the marine environment.........................182
9.3 Plastic pollution in rivers...................................................................................183
9.3.1 Distribution of plastics in global rivers...................................................183
9.3.2 Riverine transport of microplastics to coastal oceans/seas.......................187
9.4 Riverine plastic outflows...................................................................................188
9.4.1 Field measured riverine microplastic outflows........................................188
9.4.2 Comparison of riverine plastic outflows between measurements
and model estimates................................................................................190
References.................................................................................................................192
Chapter 10: Desalination and sustainability........................................................197
Anju Vijayan Nair and Veera Gnaneswar Gude
10.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................197
10.2 Description of desalination processes...............................................................198
10.2.1 Solar stills...........................................................................................198
10.2.2 Multi-stage flash desalination..............................................................199
10.2.3 Multi-effect distillation.......................................................................199
10.2.4 Vapor compression.............................................................................199
10.2.5 Energy efficiency of thermal desalination...........................................200
10.2.6 Reverse osmosis..................................................................................200
10.2.7 Membrane distillation.........................................................................201
10.3 Desalination and sustainability.........................................................................203
10.3.1 Environmental footprint......................................................................203
10.3.2 Economics of desalination..................................................................205
10.3.3 Social aspects of desalination..............................................................206
10.4 Renewable energy integration..........................................................................207
10.4.1 Selection process of desalination process............................................209
10.5 Future of sustainable desalination....................................................................210
10.5.1 Desalination at household level...........................................................210
10.5.2 Desalination at community or municipal scale....................................211
References.................................................................................................................212
x Contents
Chapter 11: Groundwater sustainability in a digital world....................................215
Ahmed S. Elshall, Ming Ye and Yongshan Wan
11.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................215
11.2 Groundwater sustainability...............................................................................217
11.3 Digital groundwater.........................................................................................220
11.4 Internet of Things(cid:1)based data collection.........................................................221
11.5 Web-based data sharing...................................................................................222
11.6 Workflow for data processing..........................................................................225
11.7 Scenarios for data usage..................................................................................228
11.8 Perspectives of web-based groundwater platforms...........................................230
11.9 Disclaimer........................................................................................................233
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................233
References.................................................................................................................234
Chapter 12: Economics of water productivity and scarcity in
irrigated agriculture........................................................................241
James F. Booker
12.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................241
12.2 Productivity concepts as indicators..................................................................243
12.3 Production and scarcity in economics..............................................................248
12.4 Constructing water productivity indicators: physical and economic
considerations..................................................................................................249
12.4.1 Physical considerations.......................................................................250
12.4.2 Economic considerations.....................................................................251
12.4.3 Net water productivity........................................................................252
12.5 Trends in water productivity............................................................................253
12.5.1 Physical and economic water productivity trends................................253
12.5.2 Economic net water productivity trends: value added,
optimization, and hydroeconomic models...........................................254
12.5.3 Other economic approaches to water productivity and efficiency........256
12.6 Conclusions.....................................................................................................257
References.................................................................................................................258
Chapter 13: Potential of municipal wastewater for resource recovery and reuse....263
Manzoor Qadir
13.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................263
13.2 Wastewater as a water source..........................................................................264
13.3 Wastewater as a nutrient source.......................................................................265
