Table Of ContentEnvironmental Engineering
Series Editors: U. Forstner, R. J. Murphy, W. H. Rulkens
Springer
Berlin
Heidelberg
New York
Barcelona
Budapest
HongKong
London
Milan
Paris
Santa Clara
Singapore
Tokyo
Charles G. Gunnerson
Jonathan A. French (Eds.)
Wastewater Management
for Coastal Cities
The Ocean Disposal Option
With contributions by Qian Ming Lu, J0rgen Frerch Knudsen,
S0ren K. Eskesen, J. T. Powers, Frederick Shremp,
Douglas A. Segar, Elaine Stamman and Zhou Yucheng
Second revised Edition
Originally Published in 1988 as Technical Paper 77
by The World Bank, Washington, DC
Springer
Series Editors
Prof. Dr. U. Forstner Arbeitsbereich Umweltschutztechnik
Technische UniversitiitHamburg-Harburg
EiBendorfer StraBe 40
D-21073 Hamburg, Germany
Prof. RobertJ. Murphy Dept. ofC ivil Engineering and Mechanics
CollegeofEngineering
University ofS outh Florida
4202 East Fowler Avenue, ENG 118
Tampa, FL 33620-5350, USA
Prof. Dr. ir. W. H. Rulkens WageningenAgricultural University
Dept. ofE nvironmental Technology
Bomenweg 2, P.O. Box 8129
NL-6700 EVWageningen, The Netherlands
Editors
Charles G. Gunnerson Environmental Engineering and Policy,
Laguna Hills, California, USA
JonathanA. French Camp, Dresser and McKee,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - Cip-Einheitsaufnahme
Wastewater management for coastal cities: the ocean disposal option; originally published
in 1988 as Technical paper 77 by The World Bank, Washington, DC I Charles G. Gunnerson;
Jonathan A. French (ed.). - 2., rev. ed. - Berlin; Heidelberg; New York; Barcelona; Budapest;
Hong Kong; London; Milan; Paris; Santa Clara; Singapore; Tokyo: Springer, 1996
(Environmental engineering)
ISBN-13:97S-3-6,p-'79731-6 e-ISBN-13:97S-3-6,p-'79'TJ.<f3
DOl: 10.10071 WS-3-64>-797J.9-3
NE: Gunnerson, Charles G. [Hrsg.]
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1996
Softcover reprint of the hardcover ~nd edition 1996
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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Typesetting: Camera-ready by editors
SPIN:10465317 6113020-543210 - Printed on acid -free paper
With gratitude for the sustaining patience
and encouragement ofo ur spouses, Betty and Sarah
andfor the seminal insights ofo ur early mentors
Norman B. Hume, engineer, and K.G. Emery, oceanographer (CGG)
and Norman H Brooks and Frederic Raichlen, engineers (JAF)
Foreword
Some three-quarters of the earth's surface is covered by the oceans and in the not
too distant past many city officials, engineers, and planners mistakenly believed
the oceans could provide an infinitely great and endless repository for the liquid and
solids wastes of coastal cities. This practice has at times threatened the well-being
of bathers, harmed tourism, filled marine food resources with pathogens and
poisons, and destroyed delicate marine ecosystems.
The truth of the matter is, that while the oceans are indeed great, the very
limited coastal waters nearest to and affected by centers of human population make
up less than one-tenth of one percent of the seas. These relatively circumscribed
areas of the seas have only limited pollution assimilation capacity and are the areas
most used by millions of people for bathing and recreation. They also serve as
one of the richest reservoirs of shellfish and other seafood resources that
concentrate human pathogens and chemical pollution from seawater to epidemic
levels. Thus the protection of coastal waters from direct pollution from coastal
cities is a vital task in preserving marine ecosystems and promoting human
health. While our understanding of the ecological and oceanographic constraints
imposed on disposal of urban wastes into coastal waters is incomplete, enough is
known in most cases to provide a very high level of protection to human health,
sea food resources, and delicate marine ecosystems. There are, however,
particularly sensitive enclosed seas and marine ecosystems where appropriate
treatment followed by land disposal is demonstrably the most rational means for
providing environmental protection.
This book, edited by two leading experts on wastewater management for coastal
cities is in many ways unique in both the depth and breadth of it's coverage of the
subject. It delves deeply into ecological and oceanographic fundamentals that are
essential to an understanding of the scientific foundations of the impacts of wastes
in the complex marine environment. These fundamentals provide for a fuller
understanding of the requirements for rational engineering design and operation of
the physical and institutional components of coastal city wastewater management.
To this end, guidelines for hydraulic design, ocean outfall construction,
monitoring, cost recovery, and other economic aspects are provided to the
manager, designer, and engineer. The book is enriched by including case studies
drawn on the basis of world-wide field experience of the editors.
Hillel 1. Shuval, Kunin-Lunenfeld
Professor of Environmental Sciences
The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
Preface
This second edition of Wastewater Management for Coastal Cities is for students
as well as the practitioners to whom the fIrst edition was directed. Its scope has
been expanded to include costing and other non-structural aspects of engineering.
Additional empirical and theoretical background information along with worked
examples are included. The book is about the ways in which scientifIc,
engineering, economic, and institutional frameworks interact and from which
investment and assessment decisions in wastewater management for coastal cities
are made. The long-range goal of the editors and contributors is the same as that
of others committed to the practice of international engineering in support of
economic development: it is to make investments in coastal city water sector
infrastructures, particularly those for wastewater management, more effIcient.
This work is constructed on three premises. First, that sustaining coastal cities
and the lives of their peoples is essential; second, that while the oceans are large,
deep, and stable, coastal waters are not, and sustaining them is also important; and
third, that these goals are most effIciently approached in the environmental sector
when informed cooperation and consensus are the instruments of choice in both
industrial and developing countries.
Damage to coastal waters from municipal wastewaters is everywhere
accompanied by other corollaries of industrial and commercial development.
Local and national problems of overfIshing eventually disappear along with the
fish. These effects are increasing on global scales where problems are
aggregating, intermediate scales where cooperative monitoring can measure rates
of degradation and recovery, and local scales where problems are solved
Meanwhile, coastal city and megacity populations and their economic activities
and impacts are increasing at combined rates of, say, 6 to 8 percent per annum
worldwide. It will take much money and ingenuity to ensure environmental
sustainability .
Our second edition comes from some fifteen years of the editors' collaboration
in environmental engineering practice along parallel paths of civil service and
private enterprise that began with the preparation of first edition. Our individual
ventures have been made possible by our collegial and counterpart engineers,
scientists, planners, economists, and managers in domestic and foreign coastal
cities and megacities, and in the World Bank and other international organizations.
These are the people with whom we have had the good fortune to work, learn
each others' skills and cultures, and depend on for our achievements in the United
States and throughout the world.
All of this is with due recognition that the original work was made possible by
the interest, institutional, and technical support of many World Bank colleagues
including John M. Kalbermatten, Shaul Arlosoroff, and James K. Feather and
their staffs; and by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration advisors and consultants Victor 1. CabeIli, Joel
B. O'Connor, and William F. Garber.
x
We are especially indebted for manuscript reviews, comments, updated
information, and coordination of the chapters in this book to Lars Frendrup
Jensen, JIMgen Frerch Knudsen, and Lee Lund Mathiasen, COWIconsult,
Denmark; to Qian-ming Lu, Jacob Steen Meller, Wagner Jacobsen, and Peter V.
Nielsen, Danish Hydraulic Institute; Hanne Bach, Water Quality Institute,
Denmark; L.D. Jones, National Rivers Authority, Thames Region, U.K.: M.R.
Hoffman, Thames Water Pic, London; Paul Woodcock, Anglian Water Services,
Ltd., Cambridge; M.T. George Taylor, Consultants in Environmental Sciences,
Ltd., Beckenham, Kent, UK; Zhou Yucheng, Shanghai Sewerage Project
Construction Company; John H. Dorsey, City of Los Angeles Bureau of
Sanitation; Charles C. Carey, Thomas LeBrun and Frances Garrett, Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts; Jeffrey Cross, Southern California Coastal Water
Research Project; Terry Fleming, USEPA Region IX, San Francisco: Joel
O'Connor, USEPA Region II, New York; Irwin Haydock, Sanitation Districts of
Orange County, California; James E. Foxworthy, Loyola Marymount University;
R. Lawrence Swanson, State University of New York, Stony Brook, Philip J.
Valent, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory; and Geoffrey Read, World Bank.
We also are grateful for the otherwise unacknowledged debt to those upper
division and graduate students in environmental engineering and sciences whose
questions evolved from the fIrst edition and from the complementary works that
distinguish sanitary and environmental engineering. .
The editors
Contents
1 Overview. ................................................................................................. 1
2 Oceanography at the Margin .....••.•.•.•.••.•.••.•••••.•.••••••••••......•.•••.•.••••..•.... 5
2.1 The Physical, Geological, and Chemical Framework ............................... 5
2.1.1 Oceanic Waters ......................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Coastal Waters .......................................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Waves, Tides, and Sea Level .................................................................... 9
2.1.4 Marine Geology and Sedimentation ....................................................... 20
2.1.5 Chemistry of Seawater and Suspended Sediments ................................. 24
2.1.6 Stirring and Mixing ................................................................................ 27
2.1.7 Bays, Estuaries, and Straits ..................................................................... 28
2.2 The Living Sea. ....................................................................................... 31
2.2.1 Ecological Relationships and Trophic Levels ......................................... 33
2.2.2 Marine Productivity ................................................................................ 34
2.2.3 Plankton .................................................................................................. 35
2.2.4 "Nekton .................................................................................................... 35
2.2.5 Bacteria ................................................................................................... 36
2.2.6 Benthos ................................................................................................... 36
2.2.7 Fisheries .................................................................................................. 39
2.3 Special Topics ......................................................................................... 41
2.3.1 Public Health Aspects ............................................................................. 41
2.3.2 Environmental Toxicity .......................................................................... 42
2.3.3 Wave and Current Measurements .......................................................... .47
2.3.4 A Historical Note on Biological Oceanography .................................... .47
2.4 References .............................................................................................. 48
3 Ecological Design .................................................................................. 55
3.1 Public Health .......................................................................................... 55
3.1.1 Marine Recreational Water ..................................................................... 58
3.1.2 Shellfish and Finfish ............................................................................... 65
3.2 Design for Marine Ecosystems ............................................................... 66
3.2.1 Eutrophication ........................................................................................ 67
3.2.2 Toxic Wastes .......................................................................................... 70
3.2.3 Minamata - A Special Case .................................................................... 71
3.2.4 Synthetic Organics .................................................................................. 72
3.3 Ocean Dumping ......................................................................... : ............ 72
3.4 References .............................................................................................. 74
4 Hydraulic Design .................................................................................. 79
4.1 Concepts and Defmitions ........................................................................ 79
4.2 Qualitative Descriptions of Receiving Waters ........................................ 81
4.2.1 Coastal Waters ........................................................................................ 84
xn
4.2.2 Rivers ...................................................................................................... 84
4.2.3 Estuaries .................................................................................................. 85
4.3 Methods of Analysis for Outfall Siting ................................................... 85
4.3.1 First Questions ........................................................................................ 85
4.3.2 Worked Example of Near Field Dilution ................................................ 87
4.3.3 Field Surveys .......................................................................................... 87
4.3.4 Numerical Modeling ............................................................................... 92
4.3.5 Physical Hydraulic Models ..................................................................... 98
4.4 Equations for Estimating Turbulent Diffusion ..................................... 100
4.5 Comparisons of Results ........................................................................ 107
4.6 Outfall and Outlet Location .................................................................. 109
4.6.1 Information Needs ................................................................................ 109
4.6.2 Water Quality ........................................................................................ 109
4.6.3 Worked Example of Outfall Siting ....................................................... 110
4.7 Outlet Design and Initial Dilution ......................................................... 114
4.7.1 Single Open Ends, Rose Diffusers Caps, Multiport Diffusers .............. 115
4.7.2 Initial Dilution for Plumes from Single Round Ports ........................... 117
4.7.3 Initial Dilution from a Line Source ....................................................... 118
4.7.4 Initial Dilution from a Line of Port Clusters ......................................... 119
4.7.5 Quick Estimate of Likelihood of Plume Submergence ......................... 120
4.7.6 Diffuser Design ..................................................................................... 122
4.8 Other Hydraulic Design Considerations ............................................... 125
4.8.1 Pipe Diameter ....................................................................................... 125
4.8.2 Thrust at Bends ..................................................................................... 125
4.8.3 Hydraulic Transients ............................................................................. 126
4.8.4 Excess Hydrostatic Head ...................................................................... 127
4.8.5 Drop Structures ..................................................................................... 127
4.8.6 Provision for Pigging ............................................................................ 128
4.9 Appendix. A note on Post-Audits ......................................................... 128
4.10 References ............................................................................................. 129
5 Construction Materials ....................................................................... 131
5.1 Pipe Materials ....................................................................................... 13 1
5.1.1 Cast Iron ................................................................................................ 131
5.1.2 Wrought Iron ........................................................................................ 133
5.1.3 Plastic .................................................................................................... 133
5.1.4 Reinforced Concrete ............................................................................. 135
5.1.5 Coated Steel .......................................................................................... 13 6
5.2 Recommended Reading ........................................................................ 136
6 On-Bottom Stability ............................................................................ 139
6.1 Forces .................................................................................................... 139
6.1.1 Soil Forces ............................................................................................ 139
6.1.2 Hydrodynamic Forces ........................................................................... 140
6.2 Vertical Stability of Unburied Pipelines ............................................... 141
6.3 Vertical Stability of Buried Pipelines ................................................... 142
6.4 Lateral Stability of Unburied Pipelines ................................. :. .............. 147
6.4.1 Density Anchors ................................................................................... 149
6.4.2 Mechanical Anchors ............................................................................. 149
6.5 Lateral Stability of Buried Pipelines ..................................................... 151
6.6 References ............................................................................................. 151
