Table Of ContentOXFORD CLASSICAL MONOGRAPHS
Published under the supervision of a Committee of the Faculty of Literae Humaniores
in the University of Oxford
OXFORD CLASSICAL MONOGRAPHS
The aim of the Oxford Classical Monographs series (which replaces the
Oxford Classical and Philosophical Monographs) is to publish books based
on the best theses on Greek and Latin literature, ancient history, and ancient
philosophy examined by the Faculty Board of Literae Humaniores.
Warfare in Roman Europe,
AD 350--425
HUGH ELTON
CLARENDON PRESS · OXFORD
1996
Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford ox2 6DP
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0 Hugh Elton 1996
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 35~425 I Hugh Elton.
( Oxford classical monographs)
Includes bibliographical references
1. Military art and science-Europe-History. 2. Europe-History, Military.
3. Rome-History, Military-30 BC-476 AD./. Title. /I. Series.
U43.E95E48 1996 355'.00936--dc20 95-17531
ISBN ~19--815007-5
I 3 5 1 9 10 8 6 4 2
Typeset by Se/wood Systems Ltd., Midsomer Norton
Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by
Bookcraft ( Bath) Ltd., Midsomer Norton
for my parents
Josephine and Brian
PREFACE
This book discusses aspects of Roman and barbarian military
practice in Roman Europe, AD 350-425. The geographical area
covers relations with all 'Germanic' barbarians as well as those
from the steppes or in Britain. The chronological period is an
arbitrary one, starting with the Roman Empire as the dominant
power in Europe and ending before the fall was inevitable, but with
all the elements for the collapse of the Western Empire in place.
Although the late Roman and early medieval periods have seen
much attention in recent years, the field of military history has
been somewhat neglected. Though detailed discussions of many
aspects of the late Roman army are available, there is still no
comprehensive modern account of the Roman army of the fourth
and fifth centuries AD. This is not such an account, but instead an
attempt to provide the background that will allow such a work to
be written in the future. It does not attempt to be exhaustive, but
tries to provide some coverage of most relevant aspects of the
subject. The result is a type of 'handbook' describing the 'nor
malities' of warfare in the late Empire.
The approach I have taken may appear unusual. I am not as
interested in how particular operations were dealt with as the
principles and strategies used in different types of operations. With
such broad aims, it seemed necessary to cover large geographical
and chronological areas in order both to gain enough evidence and
to understand the 'big picture'.
'How effective was the late Roman army?' is the underlying
question running through the book, though not determining its
shape. Such a question is complex and very difficult to answer for
any army, even in periods where more information is available.
Forth~ late Roman army it is almost impossible. However, unless
some judgement has been made on the effectiveness of the army, it
is difficult to write anything meaningful about fifth-century politics
and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. This is an attempt to
provide at least part of the answer to the question of the army's
efficiency. It does not, however, provide a complete answer. Many
Preface
Vlll
topics, e.g. Roman foreign policy, barbarian military equipment,
and Roman fortifications, deserve considerable attention. I have
done little more than skim the surface here and am well aware that
more could (and perhaps should) have been written. It is hoped
that the general nature of the arguments advanced here is not
adversely affected by such shortcomings. I do not deal with Roman
operations within Africa (as opposed to operations launched from
Europe) or east of the Bosporus. This choice was made because
the types of enemy faced by the Romans in these areas and their
objectives were both very different from the European barbarians.
Though this limits, somewhat, coverage of the Roman army itself,
the inclusion of these areas would necessitate too much diver
sification. The book is derived from my Oxford D.Phil. thesis
(1990), which originally spanned the years 350--500.W hile the text
has been updated, and much of the material dealing with events
post-425 has been excised, some remains where I felt it provided
good examples. In the footnotes, references to events later than 42 5
have been left intact. Translations are drawn from the edition cited
in the Bibliography, except for Gregory of Tours, including Renatus
Profuturus Frigeridus and Sulpicius Alexander (Penguin Classics),
Mauricius (Dennis), and Zosimus (Ridley), occasionally modified
where I thought it necessary.
Throughout the four years I worked on the thesis and two on
the book, I have received enormous assistance from many people.
First and foremost are my two supervisors. John Matthews guided
my initial steps into research and helped reform my prose style,
though he is not responsible for its continued shortcomings. Roger
Tomlin helped refine an unwieldy collection of material into some
thing more tightly structured and has eliminated a number of
careless errors. Fergus Millar has been a support and an inspiration.
I have received more encouragement from John Drinkwater than I
can ever repay. I am also grateful to Philip Bartholomew, Barbara
Levick, and Ian Wood for reading and commenting on parts of
this work and to my examiners, Peter Heather and Wolf Lie
beschuetz, both of whom have been of great help, despite our
frequent disagreements over many subjects. Jane Robson has been
a careful copy-editor. Numerous friends have read some of my
material and provided many useful comments: Roger Batty, John
Curran, Phil Freeman, Guy Halsall, Peter Heather, David Jennings,
Simon Loseby, and Benet Salway. Phil deserves particular mention
Preface ix
for his support, friendship and criticism. Mark MacIntyre has been
an invaluable help in using computers. These friends, and many
others, in particular my wife Krista, especially those in the Late
Roman seminar in Oxford, the Sheffield Gaul Conference, and
outside higher education, have provided assistance and reassurance
above and beyond the call of friendship. For endless chats, cups of
coffee and pints of bitter I remain intensely grateful.
Houston, Texas H.E.
February 1994
