War, Aggression and Self-Defence

421 Pages·1988·2.94 MB·English

by  Yoram Dinstein

War, Aggression and Self-Defence
Yoram Dinstein’s influential textbook is an indispensable guide to the legal
issuesofwarandpeace,armedattack,self-defenceandenforcementmeasures
takenundertheaegisoftheSecurityCouncil.Thisfiftheditionincorporates
recent treaties such as the Kampala amendments of the Statute of the
International Criminal Court, new case law from the International Court of
Justiceandothertribunals,andcontemporarydoctrinaldebates.Severalnew
supplementary sections – taking into account recent conflicts around the
world – are also included, and consideration is given to new resolutions of
the Security Council. With many segments having been rewritten to reflect
recent State practice, thisbookremains awide-ranging andhighly readable
introductiontothelegalissuessurroundingwarandself-defence.
yoramdinsteinisProfessorEmeritusatTel-AvivUniversity.Heisaformer
PresidentoftheUniversity(1991–9),aswellasformerRectorandformerDean
oftheFacultyofLaw.HeservedtwiceastheCharlesH.StocktonProfessor
of International Law at the US Naval War College in Newport, RI. He was
also a Humboldt Fellow at the Max Planck Institute of International Law in
Heidelberg, Germany; a Meltzer Visiting Professor of Law at New York
University;andaVisitingProfessorofLawattheUniversityofToronto.
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War, Aggression and Self-Defence
Fifth edition
YORAM DINSTEIN
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©YoramDinstein2011
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
FirstpublishedbyGrotiusPublicationsLimited1988
SecondeditionpublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress1994
Reprinted1995,1999
ThirdeditionpublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress2001
Reprinted2002,2003,2004
FourtheditionpublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress2005
Reprinted2007,2008,2009
FiftheditionpublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress2012
PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata
Dinstein,Yoram.
War,aggression,andself-defence/YoramDinstein.–5thed.
p. cm.
ISBN978-1-107-00899-1(hardback)
1. Aggression(Internationallaw) 2. War(Internationallaw) 3. Self-defense
(Internationallaw) I. Title.
KZ6374.D56 2011
341.6–dc22
2011009691
ISBN978-1-107-00899-1Hardback
ISBN978-1-107-40145-7Paperback
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor
accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto
inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch
websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.
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Contents
Introductiontothefifthedition pagexiii
Fromtheintroductiontothefirstedition xiv
Tableofcases xvi
Tableoftreaties xix
TableofSecurityCouncilresolutions xxv
TableofGeneralAssemblyresolutions xxvii
Listofabbreviations xxviii
PartI Thelegalnatureofwar 1
1 Whatiswar? 3
I. Thedefinitionofwar 3
A. Thenumerousmeaningsofwar 3
B. AnanalysisofOppenheim’sdefinitionofwar 5
(a) Inter-Stateandintra-Statewars 5
(b) Warinthetechnicalsenseandinthematerialsense 9
(c) Totalwars,limitedwarsandincidents‘shortofwar’ 11
(d) Warasanasymmetricalphenomenon 13
C. Aproposeddefinitionofwar 15
II. Statusmixtus 15
A. Peacetimestatusmixtus 16
B. Wartimestatusmixtus 17
III.Theregionofwar 19
A. TheterritoriesoftheBelligerentParties 19
(a) Thegeneralrule 19
(b) Theexception:neutralizedzones 20
B. Thehighseasandtheexclusiveeconomiczone 22
C. Outerspace 24
IV.Neutrality 25
A. Thebasicprinciples 25
B. Someconcreterules 26
(a) Passageofbelligerentmilitaryunitsandwarmaterials 26
(b) Enrollmentinbelligerentarmedforces 27
(c) MilitarysuppliestoBelligerentParties 27
v
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vi Contents
2 Thecourseofwar 30
I. Thebeginningofwar 30
A. Warinthetechnicalsense 30
B. Warinthematerialsense 33
II. Theterminationofwar 34
A. Treatiesofpeace 34
(a) Thesignificanceofatreatyofpeace 34
(b) Peacepreliminaries 38
(c) Thelegalvalidityofatreatyofpeace 39
B. Armisticeagreements 41
(a) Thetransformationinthemeaningofarmistice 41
(b) AnanalysisoftheIsraeliarmisticeagreements 45
(c) Thedisparityandsimilaritybetweenanarmisticeandatreatyofpeace 47
C. Othermodesofterminatingwar 48
(a) Impliedmutualconsent 48
(b) Debellatio 49
(c) Unilateraldeclaration 51
III.Thesuspensionofhostilities 51
A. Differenttypesofsuspensionofhostilities 51
(a) Localcease-fireagreements 52
(b) Generalcease-fireagreements 53
(c) Cease-fireordainedbytheSecurityCouncil 54
B. Thenatureofcease-fire 56
C. Denunciationandbreachofcease-fire 58
(a) Thefragilityofcease-fire 58
(b) ‘Materialbreach’ofcease-fireagreements 59
PartII Theillegalityofwar 63
3 Ahistoricalperspectiveofthelegalstatusofwar 65
I. The‘justwar’doctrineinthepast 65
A. TheRomanorigins 65
B. Christiantheology 66
C. The‘fathers’ofinternationallaw 67
II. Recentconceptsof‘justwar’ 69
A. Kelsen’stheory 69
B. ‘Warsofnationalliberation’ 70
C. ‘Humanitarianintervention’ 73
III.Theextra-legalityofwar 75
IV.Thelegalityofwar 78
V. Exceptionstothegenerallibertytogotowar 79
A. Specialarrangements 79
B. TheHagueConventions 81
C. TheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations 82
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Contents vii
4 Thecontemporaryprohibitionoftheuseofinter-Stateforce 85
I. TheKellogg-BriandPact 85
II. TheCharteroftheUnitedNations 87
A. Theprohibitionoftheuseorthreatofinter-Stateforce 87
(a) Useofforce 87
(b) Threatsofforce 88
B. Thenon-restrictivescopeoftheprohibition 89
C. Attemptstolimittherangeoftheprohibition 91
III. Customaryinternationallaw 94
A. Theinteractionbetweencustomandtreaty 94
B. TheCharterandcustomaryinternationallawontheuse
ofinter-Stateforce 95
(a) Article2(4) 95
(b) Article2(6) 98
C. ArethenormsoftheCharterandcustomaryinternationallawontheuse
ofinter-Stateforceidentical? 99
IV.TreatiesotherthanthePactandtheCharter 101
A. Generaltreaties 101
B. Regionaltreaties 102
C. Bilateraltreaties 103
V. Theprohibitionoftheuseofinter-Stateforceasjuscogens 104
A. Thesignificanceofjuscogens 104
(a) Aclashbetweenatreatyandperemptorynorms 104
(b) Theperemptorynatureoftheprohibitionoftheuseofinter-State
force 105
(c) Theconsequencesoftheperemptorynatureoftheprohibition 105
B. Howcanjuscogensbemodified? 107
VI.Stateresponsibility 109
A. ApplicationofgeneralrulesofStateresponsibility 109
B. Stateresponsibilityforinternationalcrimes 114
(a) ThecriminalresponsibilityofStates 114
(b) Ergaomnesobligations 116
(c) Punitivedamages 118
VII.Consent 118
A. Adhocconsent 118
(a) Consenttoforeignmilitaryassistanceagainstlocalinsurgents 119
(b) Consenttootherforeignusesofforceinthelocalterritory 120
(c) Thelimitsofconsentanditswithdrawal 121
B. Consentbytreaty 122
5 Thecrimeofaggression 124
I. Themeaningofaggression 124
II. Aggressionasacrime 125
A. TheNuremberglegacy 125
(a) Thebackground 125
(b) TheLondonCharter 126
(c) TheNurembergJudgment 127
B. Post-Nurembergdevelopments 129
C. TheRomeStatuteandtheKampalaAmendments 131
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viii Contents
III. Thedefinitionofthecrimeofaggression 134
A. Aggressionversuswarofaggressionasacrime 134
B. ThecriminalimpactoftheGeneralAssemblyDefinition
ofAggression 136
IV. IndividualaccountabilityforthecrimeofAggression 140
A. Theactusreus 141
(a) Rationemateriae 141
(b) Rationepersonae 142
(c) Rationetemporis 144
B. Themensrea 145
(a) Mistakeoffact 147
(b) Mistakeoflaw 148
(c) Duress 148
(d) Insanity 149
C. Inadmissibledefencepleas 150
(a) Obediencetodomesticlaw 150
(b) Obediencetosuperiororders 150
(c) ActsofState 153
D. Thepenalproceedings 154
E. Immunitiesfromjurisdiction 156
(a) Foreigndomesticcourts 156
(i) Diplomaticandconsularagents 156
(ii) HeadsofStates 157
(iii) Certainhigh-rankingoffice-holders 158
(iv) Thelimitsofjurisdictionalimmunities 159
(b) Internationalcriminalproceedings 160
6 Controversialconsequencesofthechangeinthelegal
statusofwar 163
I. Warinthetechnicalsense 164
II. Inconclusive‘policeaction’ 165
III.Equalapplicationofthejusinbello 167
A. Self-defence 167
(a) Thetheory 167
(b) Thepractice 170
(c) Someconfusingjudicialdicta 172
B. Collectivesecurity 174
IV. Impartialneutrality 175
A. Thesurvivalofneutrality 176
B. Non-membersoftheUnitedNations 177
C. Qualifiedneutrality 178
V. Territorialchanges 180
A. Non-annexation 181
B. Self-determination 181
C. Juscogens 182
D. Non-recognition 183
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Contents ix
PartIII Exceptionstotheprohibitionoftheuse
ofinter-Stateforce 185
7 Theconceptofself-defence 187
I. Therightofself-defence 187
A. Themeaningofself-defence 187
B. Self-defenceasaright 189
C. Self-defenceasan‘inherent’right 191
II. Self-defenceasaresponsetoanarmedattack 193
A. Armedattackasaconditiontoself-defence 193
B. Armedattackandpreemptiveself-defence 194
(a) Anticipatoryuseofforce 194
(b) Article51andcustomaryinternationallaw 196
(c) Theinsufficiencyofexceptionalthreats 199
C. Thebeginningofanarmedattackandinterceptiveself-defence 201
(a) Theneedtolookbeyondthe‘firstshot’ 201
(b) Interceptiveself-defence 203
(c) ‘Imminence’ 205
(d) Aseriesofacts 206
D. Asmall-scalearmedattack 207
(a) ThegapbetweenArticle2(4)andArticle51 207
(b) Frontierincidents:scaleandeffects 210
(c) Choiceofweapons 212
E. Thelocaleofanarmedattack 212
(a) Theunauthorizedcrossingofafrontier 213
(b) Armedattackscommencingsubsequenttothecrossingofafrontier 214
(c) ArmedattackswithintheterritoryoftheaggressorState 214
(d) ArmedattackswithintheterritoryofathirdState 215
(e) ArmedattacksoutsidetheterritoriesofallStates 216
F. Thetargetsofanarmedattack 216
(a) Thewiderangeofpossibletargets 216
(b) Attacksagainstnationalsabroad 217
III.DefactoorgansofaState 219
A. TheemploymentbyaStateof‘auxiliaries’ 220
B. Thecriterionofeffectivecontrol 221
IV.Anarmedattackbynon-Stateactors 224
A. ThelanguageoftheCharter 224
B. Theoriginofattacksbynon-Stateactors 225
C. Attacksbynon-Stateactorsasarmedattacks 227
V. Conditionsprecedenttotheexerciseofself-defence 230
A. Necessity 231
B. Proportionality 232
C. Immediacy 233
VI.TheroleoftheSecurityCouncil 234
A. Thetwophasesrule 234
B. TheoptionsbeforetheSecurityCouncil 236
C. FailuretoreporttotheSecurityCouncil 239
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x Contents
8 Themodalitiesofindividualself-defence 242
I. Self-defenceinresponsetoanarmedattackbyaState 242
A. Measures‘shortofwar’ 242
(a) On-the-spotreaction 242
(b) Defensivearmedreprisals 244
(i) Themeaningofdefensivearmedreprisals 244
(ii) Theinterplaybetweendefensivearmedreprisalsand
belligerentreprisals 246
(iii) Theconditionsofnecessity,proportionalityandimmediacy 247
(iv) Thelegalityofdefensivearmedreprisals 249
(c) Theprotectionofnationalsabroad 255
B. War 259
(a) Necessity 262
(b) Proportionality 262
(c) Immediacy 267
II. Self-defenceinresponsetoanarmedattackfromaState 268
A. Extra-territoriallawenforcement 268
B. ThepracticeofStates 272
C. Webster’sformula 274
9 Collectiveself-defence 278
I. Themeaningofcollectiveself-defence 278
A. Thefourcategoriesofcollectiveself-defence 278
(a) Individualself-defenceindividuallyexercised 278
(b) Individualself-defencecollectivelyexercised 278
(c) Collectiveself-defenceindividuallyexercised 280
(d) Collectiveself-defencecollectivelyexercised 280
B. Collectiveself-defenceasthedefenceofself 280
C. Isthereaneedforatreaty? 281
D. Customaryinternationallaw 282
II. RegionalarrangementsundertheCharteroftheUnitedNations 282
III. Collectiveself-defencetreaties 283
A. Mutualassistancetreaties 284
B. Militaryalliances 286
C. Treatiesofguarantee 289
IV. Thelegallimitationsofcollectiveself-defence 292
A. TheprimacyoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations 292
B. Therequirementofanarmedattack 293
(a) Armedattackasaconditiontocollectiveself-defence 293
(b) Isarequestforassistancenecessary? 294
C. Otherconditionsfortheexerciseofcollectiveself-defence 296
V. Themodalitiesofcollectiveself-defence 297
VI. TheGulfWarandcollectiveself-defence 299
10 Collectivesecurity 303
I. Themeaningofcollectivesecurity 303
A. Definition 303
B. TheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations 303
C. TheCharteroftheUnitedNations 304
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