Table Of ContentHermann Hermann Kreutzmann The wakhan quadrangle became an arena of colonial
Kreutzmann competition and international interest when four powers –
afghanistan, China, great Britain and russia – struggled for
dominance in a remote mountain region where only scat-
waKHan quadrangle tered communities lived in a challenging environment. at
the end of the ‘great game’ international boundaries were
agreed upon and established on the ground. Prior to this,
half a century of exploration and reconnaissance had aug-
mented and enhanced the ethnographical, geographical and
exploration and espionage during and after the great game
linguistic knowledge about the people living there by send-
e
e ing various international travellers commissioned to record
m
l
a routes, military details and strategic information for the re-
g
g spective parties in the contest. among the diverse explorers
t
n rea were so-called indigenous intermediaries who were trained
g in measuring geodetic parameters and who noted down
a e their observations about the customs, culture and economy
h
r r t of the people. They were expected to be knowledgeable in
e
t terms of linguistic skills and cultural practices; they were
f
d d a less likely than their colonial masters to arouse suspicion.
n Munshi abdul rahim was an explorer who was sent to
a a
g wakhan and Badakhshan in 1879-1880 by the first British
n
u ri Political agent in gilgit, John Biddulph. Hard to find and
u
d long-disregarded, his report is the centrepiece of this book
q
ge and is reprinted in facsimile. This authentic and informative
a
n report was written during a crucial period for wakhan that
n o
i resulted in the imperial division of the formerly independent
p
a es principality into two parts and the flight and migration of a
d large share of its inhabitants to neighbouring countries. His
n
H
a account is preceded by an introduction to the great game
n
K o and its implications for the Central asian interface and
i
t
a especially Badakhshan and the Pamirs, an elaboration of the
a or context in which exploration and reconnaissance took place,
l
p
w x and a presentation of the actors from the perspective of
e
‘native explorers’. Munshi abdul rahim’s narrative is a case
in point to discuss the function of providers of ‘political’
and ‘non-political’ information, i.e. the distinction between
exploration and espionage from colonial times to the present
day. The comments and interpretations are embedded in
archival research and fieldwork in the region; within a span
of 40 years, the author has retraced all the steps of Munshi
abdul rahim.
Harrassowitz Harrassowitz Verlag Hermann Kreutzmann
MAR_Schutzumschlag_Fin.indd 1 12.02.2017 16:20:29
Hermann Kreutzmann
waKHan quadrangle
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
Hermann Kreutzmann
waKHan quadrangle
exploration and espionage during and after the great game
2017
Harrassowitz Verlag · wiesbaden
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
DedicatedtoSabineFelmyandallourcompanionsandfriends
enroutetothePamiriancrossroads
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Coverillustration:Thomasedwardgordon1876
Backcover:MapofthesurveymadebytheMirzain1868–69
editors:anneBeckandSabineFelmy
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5
Contents
avant-propos 7 –Marriageceremonies 102
–Ondeath 103
Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors 7
–education 103
Introducingactorsandinterests 9
–Builtenvironment 104
narrowingdownthecontext–
–administrativedivision 104
Munshiabdulrahim’smission 10
–agriculture 106
–Contentsandcomments 11
–animalhusbandry 109
–Theimmediateaftermathandlong-lasting
–authorityandrule 109
effects 11
–wakhanwithinBadakhshan 111
Transliterationandtranscription 12
–Ishkashim 113
Copyright 15
–Zebak 113
–warduj 115
Introduction 17
–Faizabad 116
Fromriversourcetogeopoliticalpivot–
–Ontheholymantle 117
ThegreatgameontheOxus 17
–Saleofslaves 118
dominanceandrestructuring–40yearsthatshaped
–ManufacturesofBadakhshan 118
Centralasia 20
–Mineralwealthandotherproduce 118
Menontheground–ananglo-russiancontest 31
–IndiangoodsinBadakhshan 119
gamblinginthegreatgame–amulti-tier
–russiangoodsinBadakhshan 119
playground 35
–Bokharangoods 120
Intellectualsupportduringthegreatgame 39
–goodsfromqataghanandKunduz 120
endgameinthewakhanquadrangle 43
–ProductsfromChitral 121
–artisansandcraftsmenfromFaizabad 121
Missionswithanaim 57
–Khamchán,theancientcapital 122
FromKashgartowakhan 57 –OnthetribesofBadakshán 122
Colonialmastersdependingonindigenous –ThetribeofHazáras 122
intermediaries–collaborationinmap-making –Onreligion 122
andreconnaissance 63 –Onlearning 122
Muslimtrackersintrans-frontierCentralasia 65 –Onhouse-building 122
a‘skeletonmap’ 68 –Onhabitsofhospitality 123
JohnBiddulph–commandingofficerand –HabitsoftheinhabitantsofBadakhshan 123
mastermind 75 –Ongivingandtakinggirlsinmarriage 124
MukhtarShahandMunshiabdulrahim– –Prideofraceofthetribes 124
twotravellersontheirwaytoBadakhshan 83 –Onclothing 124
Munshiabdulrahim’sjourneyrevisited–from –Clothingofwomen 124
colonialignorancetopresent-dayreception 89 –appearanceandheightofmen 124
Munshiabdulrahim’svisitatacrucialtime –Onthemen’slabour 124
forwakhanandBadakhshan 99 –Onthewomen’slabour 125
Topicscoveredandhighlightedin –SicknessinBadakhshan 125
Munshiabdulrahim’sreport 101 –Oncattle-rearingandwealth 125
–religion 102 –numbersofpopulation 125
–Ceremoniesonthebirthofason 102 –OntheclimateofBadakhshan 126
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
6 Contents
–TableofdescentoftheMirsofBadakhshan 128 Thefateandfutureofthep€r 202
–detailedaccountofthesonsoftheMirsof routesacrosstheHindukush,Pamirs,Karakoram
Badakhshan 128 andHimalaya 205
–relationshipandkinsmanshipofthe Thewakhanquadrangleintransition–linksbetween
MirsofBadakhshan 128 afghanistan,BritishIndiaandKashgaria 207
–PlaceofflightorrefugeoftheMirsof Chitral-wakhanroute–nexuswithtradefrom
Badakhshan 129 Badakhshan 208
–dependenceoftheMirofShughnanon Separateinfrastructures–roadstodevelopment 213
Badakhshan 131 ContemporarylifeinBadakhshan 219
–HistoryofBadakhshan 132 Faizabad–theurbancentre 221
–ancientrevenueatthetimeoftheChughtaiKings adaptationinnewabodes–mobility,migrationand
andothers 132 integration 227
–TheexpenditureoftheMironhishouseand rajonIshkashim 227
army 132 Sarikol 231
–HabitsoftheMir 132 gojal 233
–Peopleofrank 132 Cross-boundarycommunicationandexchange 236
–Onthetreatmentofguestsandvakils Strategicimportancetoday 238
bytheMir 133
–accountoftwoorthreegenerationsofthe Postscript 243
Mirsofqataghan 133
Thefateofindigenousintermediaries 243
–routedescriptions 135
explorationandintelligencecollectioninthe
–generalremarksontheYarkhunValley 142
wakhanquadrangle–yesterdayandtoday 247
Commentonthenarrative 143
anthropological,botanicalandgeographical
exploration 253
JourneytoBadakshan
withreporttoBadakshanandwakhan glossary 259
byMunshiabdulrahim 151
Pronunciation 265
Sequel 191 Bibliography 266
wakhananditsheritageinmulti-localsituations 191 archivalcollections 266
exodusofMiraliMardanShah 193 Publishedsources 268
Optionsforreturningtowakhan 195 Mapbibliography 276
wakhandivided–peopleonthemove 197
CommunitydivisionalongthePanj 199 Index 279
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
7
FromtheoasisofBaharaksuppliesare
broughttotheherdersonShewaPa-
mir.ThetwomenhavereachedSar-e
BomDarra(3,200m);theHindukush
mountainrangeisvisibleintheback-
ground.Thephotographwastakenon
16July2009
avant-propos
pearedasareasofambiguity,aslosthorizons,andasplaces
ofmystery.Justtomentiononeexample:untilasystematic
Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors ground-checkmaterialised,thenotionprevailedofahidden
kingdom and a fabulous mountain system by the name of
Over centuries travellers have been the main producers of Bolor.Toproceedfurtherintounknownterritoriesmotivat-
spatialknowledgeaboutnewdestinations;especiallyinare- ed enterprising travellers in their search for lost places and
as where their numbers were only few, some have reached ‘blankspots’.ThePamiriancrossroadsappearedtobesuch
thestatusofhighlyrespectedpioneerswithoutanycompet- hostile areas where physical challenges, poor infrastruc-
itorsofequalstanding.Certainnameshaverepresentedthe ture and political insecurity met.1 The Bolor mystery was
canon of geographical knowledge. For a long time Central never solved and vanished completely when the territories
asia has functioned as an interface between densely popu- where Bolor had supposedly been hidden became known.
latedareassuchasChina,India,Persiaandeurope;there- whenCarlZimmermanncompiledhismapofInnerasiain
motedeserts,mountainsandsteppeshadtobecrossedinor- 1841,itappearedtosumuptheconventionalknowledgeof
dertoconnectfertileoases,pulsatingcitiesandnetworksof learned circles of its time. The map was produced to illus-
roads.archaeologicalandgeographicalexpeditionsfocused trateCarlritter’smonumentalworkongeography,inpar-
on retracing the flow of innovations and inventions and ticular volume three, in which the transition from eastern
trackingthedisseminationofmaterialgoodsandknowledge to western asia was discussed.2 Carl ritter’s perception of
along the ancient silk routes. Over time it became obvious asia influenced the thinking of many leading geographers
that no single lines channelled these exchanges, but that a oftheirtimewhoattendedhislecturesincludingalexander
webofpathsandroutesenabledthecrossingofdesertsand von Humboldt, Ferdinand Freiherr von richthofen, Carl
mountainsbycaravans,expeditionsandindividualsontheir von Clausewitz, elisée reclus, arnold Henri guyot, Pyotr
waytobetter-knowndestinations.Thelandsinbetweenap- Petrovich Semyonov.3 There was ample space for specu-
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
8 avant-propos
lation about Bolor, and the placement of Badakhshan and onistshavebeenforgotten,ignoredorneglected,suchaslo-
wakhanseemsratherarbitrary,butrumoursandtaleswere cal residents, bazaar dwellers and transport providers. The
linkedtothePamirianinterface.4Itwastheearlyphaseofa personalitiesconcernedfulfilleddifferentdutiesandserved
periodwhenoverallinterestinthecrossroadsledtosignifi- avarietyofexpectations.
cantpoliticalchanges. grouping their diverse contributions, we may distin-
Thewakhanquadranglegainedinattentionwhenparticu- guishbetween‘political’and‘non-political’,astheirclients
larspheresofinfluencewereexpandedfromareassuchasaf- did in elaborated confidential abstracts and synopses. a
ghanistan,qataghan,Fergana,KashgariaandKashmir–with most obvious and revealing presentation of a report divid-
centres of power in Kabul, Kunduz, qoqand, Kashgar, and ed into these two rubrics is the account by Mukhtar Shah
Srinagar – into their respective peripheries. locating places in the ‘Secret and confidential reports of Trans-Himalayan
TheWakhanquadrangleshowsthe
andknowingthepowerstructuresinremotespacesstartedto explorations in Badakhshán’, published with a preceding
fourcorners,directionsandsourcesof
becomeanendeavourofgeographicalexploration.resources, commentandsynopsisbythedeputySuperintendentofthe
politicalinterferenceinlocalaffairs
before,duringandaftertheGreat routes,andruleinthewakhanquadrangleenteredthefocus SurveyofIndiaColonelHenryCharlesBaskervilleTanner.6
Game.Themajorcolonialplayerswere of geographical knowledge production that became closely Individualscouldcontributetobothrubricsintheirreports;
GreatBritainandRussiawhereas relatedtopoliticalschemingandstrategicconsiderations. the processors of information in the survey offices and in-
Chinawascomparativelyweak. lateron,China,russiaandgreatBritaindirectedtheir telligence branches decided whether the narrations should
Wakhan’sstrongestrelationswere
intereststowardsthePamiriancrossroadsasmightypowers beconsideredandassessedtheirrelevancefortheirrespec-
toBadakhshanandsubsequentlyto
tendedtooverrideregionalinterestsortocreatedependen- tiveinterests.MostoftheinformationcollectedbyMukhtar
Afghanistan.TheAmirofAfghanistan
gainedthemajorterritorialportionof cy through loyalty agreements. The great game is mainly Shahwastermed‘non-political’;sometimesitwasaugment-
Wakhanasaresultofboundary- perceived as a power-related competition between Tsarist edby‘political’informationthatoriginatedfromanaccount
makingwhilethenorthernportion russiaandgreatBritainovercontrolanddominanceinaf- byMunshiabdulrahim,theoriginofwhichisnotfurther
wasdominatedbyBokharaand
ghanistan, Central asia and India. The outcome succeeded specifiedinthissource.7
Russia;nowadaysitispartof
in averting confrontation between the mighty powers, no In order to give appropriate attention to this valuable
Gorno-BadakhshanwithinTajikistan
(seeHermannKreutzmann2015a: heavy losses were involved on their sides, but failed to re- source,theentirereportbyMunshiabdulrahimispresent-
205–293). spect regional sovereignty and local interests. Significant edhere.Thenarrator,whoistitledmunsh€orscribe,served
DesignbyHermannKreutzmann numbers of residents in the wakhan quadrangle became the British raj as a ‘political’ traveller to Badakhshan and
refugeesormigrantsthathadtogiveuptheirvillagesorno- wakhan.Onthebasisofhisdiscoveries,interviewsandob-
madsthatwereforcedtoevacuateformergrazinggrounds. servations,hepreparedanextensiveaccountabouthiswinter
asymmetricpowerrelationsarereflectedintheoutcome journeytowardsthewakhanquadranglein1879to1880for
ofthegamble;thesameappliestotheperceptionofactors. theForeignOffice,whereitwasprintedfiveyearslaterinan
Their functions and roles have been assessed and rated ac- englishtranslation.Hisreportwaswidelyignored,neglected
cording to their position in the imperial setup. The widely orkeptsecret;thefewbitsandpiecesthathavebeenrepro-
known and advertised heroes originated solely from eu- ducedappearmainlyinthe‘political’rubric.Othercolleagues
rope. Their stories have been told many times.5 Yet many whoservedsimilarpurposesarebetterknownandtheirfind-
more people were involved in various functions and dis- ings and stories have received more attention. Munshi ab-
guises, such as geopolitical players and religious pilgrims, dulrahimisdefinitelyoneoftheforgottenexplorersofthe
subalterns in colonial hierarchies and service providers in wakhanquadrangle,buthisreportdeservesdueattention.It
imperialendeavours,knowledgeablepath-findersandcom- is an extraordinary communiqué in many respects, offering
petenttranslatorsforindividualtravellersandmissions,gos- informationandinsightsabouthardshipsanddependencies,
sip-collectingnewswriters,clandestinespiesandsecretmis- local chronologies and genealogies in contrast to those offi-
sionaries,enterprisingmerchantsandprofit-seekingtraders, cialreportswhichoffertopographicalplacementsandroute
trained intelligence officers and surveying assistants for descriptions that solely served military demands and strate-
map-makers,trustedcompanionsandextraordinarysourc- gic interests. we do not know much about the personality,
esofinheritedknowledge,localhistoriansandstorytellers. upbringing, professional background and even origin of the
Thelistcouldbeprolongedevenfurther,formanyprotag- author,butweareacquaintedwiththeclientswhocommis-
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
Traveloguesfromforgottenvisitors 9
The‘MapofAfghanistan,andthe
adjacentcountries’waspublished
undertheauspicesofthedirectorsof
theEastIndiaCompany.Itshows
KunduzandBadakhshanastwo
little-knownprincipalitiesnorthofthe
Hindukush.Themapprovidesmore
detailedinformationabouttheAfghan
territoriesandKashmir.Itwasreleased
twoyearsbeforetheEastIndia
Companyceded‘hillyormountainous
country’totheMaharajaofKashmir
intheTreatyofAmritsar(Charles
UmpherstonAitchison1909,XI:264).
Hunza,Sarikol,andWakhanarenot
representedatall,buttherubyand
lapislazuliminesaremarked.
Source:MapofAfghanistan,andthe
adjacentcountriesdrawnandengraved
byJohnandCharlesWalkerin1844.
CourtesyofthePamirArchive
Collection
sionedhisservicesatacrucialtime.Placesandtimingswillbe Introducingactorsandinterests
contextualisedfromanumberofcontemporarysourcesthat
provide insights into the hierarchical structures of employ- Theopeningchapterhighlightscertainaspectsthatdrawat-
ing ‘native explorers’, the function of espionage and recon- tentionto why theremoteand comparativelylesswell-en-
naissance trips, and the exploitation of spatial knowledge as dowedwakhanquadranglebecameageopoliticalpivotand
acompetitiveadvantage.Concurrentandinterrelatedsources area of strategic interest in the era of international bound-
about Badakhshan and wakhan provide additional insights ary-making. The 19th century shift of exploratory interest
beyondtheprimeobjectiveofhiscommission.Publishinghis from the coastal lines towards the sources of the mighty
accountprovidestheopportunitytoshifttheangleofcuriosi- asianriversmeantthathithertounknownmountainranges
tyandscrutinyslightly:awayfromthefocusonbetter-known becamethetargetofexploration,expeditionsandmissions.
‘native explorers’ and their supervising colonial officers to- Thehiddenagendaofexpandingspheresofinfluenceresult-
wardsnarrativesabouteverydaylife,challengesforsurvival, ed in monopolising territorial appropriation, domination
rulingelites,commerce,slavetradeandprofessionaloccupa- anddemarcationofboundaries.Theattempttodefine‘sci-
tions.MostlikelythetextwasrenderedfromMunshiabdul entific’andtofind‘natural’geographicalbordersdisguised
rahim’soriginalPersianwritingintoenglishbyanunknown salientfeaturesoftheimperialprojectthatwouldleadtothe
translator who must have been an employee in the colonial significant restructuring of political realms, revaluation of
intelligenceserviceinSimla.InordertocontextualiseMunshi spatial properties, and transformation of social structures.
abdul rahim’s narrative, it appeared advisable to frame his until the anglo-russian accord of 1907 it took less than
account with an introduction and a comment, followed by half a century to shape and demarcate Central asian bor-
asequelandapostscript.Theadditionalmaterialsupportsa dersinamannerthathashadlastingeffectsuntiltoday.The
positioning of Munshi abdul rahim’s account in a defined gamblingentailedinthegreatgameinvolvednotonlysu-
spatial setting and ranges from contemporary 19th century pra-regional imperial powers, but a number of smaller re-
sourcestopresent-daylifeinBadakhshanandwakhan. gional and local players that gained or suffered. These po-
©2017,OttoHarrassowitzGmbH&Co.KG,Wiesbaden
ISBNPrint:978-3-447-10812-6—ISBNE-Book:978-3-447-19637-6
