Volcano Deformation: New Geodetic Monitoring Techniques

469 Pages·32.914 MB·English

by  Dzurisin D.

Volcano Deformation
GeodeticMonitoringTechniques
EruptioncolumnfromGuaguaPichinchaVolcanoasseen
fromQuito,thecapitalcityofEcuador,on7October1999.
Thecolumn,whichrosetoaheightof(cid:1)12km((cid:1)7:5miles),
exhibitsmanyofthefeaturesdescribedbyPlinytheYounger
inhiseyewitnessaccountofthe79CE(CommonEra;
substituteforAD,AnnoDomini)eruptionofVesuvius
(Preface),includinganarrow‘trunk’,spreading‘branches’,
whiteareascausedbycondensationofwatervaporasaresult
ofrapidexpansionofhumidair,anddarkareasladenwith
tephra.Suchcolumnsarecharacteristicofplinianeruptions,
socalledinrecognitionofPlinytheYounger’searly
contributiontodescriptivevolcanology.Photographby
DanielAndradeVarela,DepartamentodeGeof|(cid:1)sicadela
EscuelaPolite¤cnicaNacional,Quito,Ecuador.
DanielDzurisin
VolcanoDeformation
Geodetic Monitoring Techniques
Published in associationwith
PPrraaxxiiss PPuubblliisshhiinngg
Chichester, UK
Dr Daniel Dzurisin
United States Geological Survey
David A. Johnston Cascades Volcano Observatory
Vancouver
Washington
USA
This eBook does not include ancillary media that was packaged with the
printed version of the book.
SPRINGER–PRAXIS BOOKS IN GEOPHYSICAL SCIENCES
SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: Dr. Philippe Blondel, C.Geol., F.G.S., Ph.D., M.Sc., Senior Scientist, Department of Physics,
UniversityofBath,Bath,UK
ISBN 3-540-42642-6 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
Springer is part of Springer-Science+Business Media (springeronline.com)
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# Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2007
Printed in Germany
Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
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Cover design: Jim Wilkie
Project management: Originator Publishing Services, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk, UK
Printed on acid-free paper
USGS scientist Jack Kleinman, typically attired in shorts and a smile, sets up EDM
reflectorsonNovaruptalavadomeintheValleyofTenThousandSmokes,Alaska,with
Baked Mountain in the distance. The rhyolite dome was emplaced during the waning
phaseofthelargestvolcaniceruptionofthe20thcentury,whichproducedabout20km3
ofair-falltephraand11–15km3ofash-flowtuffwithinabout60hoursinJune1912.Jack
helpedtoestablishageodeticnetworknearNovaruptain1989andservedascrewchief
forfollow-upsurveysin1990and1993.Hisenergyandzestforlifeinspiredallthosewho
knewhim.JackdiedinakayakingaccidentontheWhiteSalmonRiver,Washington,in
1994. Photograph by John Eichelberger, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Whatseparatesthegiftedfromthosewhodoisthedoingofit.I’vecomeacrossalotofpeoplewhocanwrite
betterthanIcananddoeverythingIdobetterthanIcan.ThedifferenceisIcankeepmybottomtothechair.
Jim Lehrer, anchor, PBS’ The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer
and author of 15 novels, 2 memoirs, and 3 plays.
Contents
List of contributors xi 1.4 An introduction to geodetic sensors and
techniques 22
Foreword xiii
1.4.1 The emergence of volcano geodesy 22
Preface xv 1.4.2 Continuous sensors and repeat surveys 25
1.4.3 Tiltmeters, strainmeters, and continuous
Acknowledgements xix GPS 26
1.4.4 Repeated surveys – leveling, EDM, and
DVD contents xx
GPS 28
List of figures xxi 1.4.5 Photography, photogrammetry, and
water-level gauging 30
List of tables xxvii
List of symbols xxix 2 Classical surveying techniques 33
List of abbreviations and acronyms xxxi 2.1 Early geodetic surveys 33
2.2 Reference systems and datums 34
2.3 Geodetic networks 37
1 The modern volcanologist’s tool kit 1 2.4 Trilateration and triangulation 39
2.4.1 EDM and theodolite surveys, with
1.1 Volcanoes in motion – when deformation
examples from Mount St. Helens and
gets extreme 2
Long Valley Caldera 40
1.1.1 The ups and downs of a Roman market –
2.4.2 Triangulation and total-station surveys 50
Phlegraean Fields Caldera, Italy 2
2.5 Leveling and tilt-leveling surveys 51
1.1.2 Remarkable uplifts in the Gala´pagos
2.5.1 Field procedures and accuracy 53
Islands – Fernandina and Alcedo Volcanoes 3
2.5.2 Single-setup leveling 61
1.1.3 Rabaul Caldera, Papua New Guinea, 1994 3
2.5.3 Geodetic leveling 64
1.1.4 The bulge at Mount St. Helens, 1980 4
2.5.4 Tilt-leveling results at South Sister
1.2 Volcanology in the information age 5
Volcano, Oregon 65
1.2.1 Volcano hazards mitigation – a complicated
2.5.5 Repeated leveling surveys at Medicine
business 5
Lake Volcano, California 65
1.2.2 Lessons from Armero, Colombia 6
2.6 Photogrammetry 69
1.2.3 Communication – a key to effective hazards 2.6.1 Mapping the 1980 north flank ‘bulge’ at
mitigation 8 Mount St. Helens 69
1.3 A brief survey of volcano-monitoring 2.6.2 Oblique-angle and fixed-camera
techniques 10 photogrammetry 71
1.3.1 Seismology – cornerstone of volcano 2.7 Microgravity surveys 72
monitoring 10 2.7.1 Physical principles 72
1.3.2 Volcano geochemistry 13 2.7.2 Results from K|·lauea Volcano, Hawai0i 74
1.3.3 Volcano geophysics 17 2.7.3 Results from Miyakejima Volcano, Japan 78
1.3.4 Hydrologic responses to stress and strain 19 2.8 Magnetic field measurements 79
1.3.5 Remote-sensing techniques 20 2.8.1 Physical mechanisms 79
1.3.6 Volcano hazards and risk assessment 2.8.2 Changes associated with eruptions at
techniques 21 Mount St. Helens 79
1.3.7 A mobile volcano-monitoring system 22 2.8.3 Results from Long Valley Caldera 80
viii Contents
3 Continuous monitoring with in situ 4.5.2 The L3 combination 126
sensors 81 4.5.3 Single differences 126
4.5.4 Double differences 127
3.1 Seismometers 81
4.5.5 Triple differences 129
3.1.1 A brief history of seismology 82
4.6 Doing the math: turning data into
3.1.2 An introduction to seismic waves and
positions 131
earthquake types 83
4.6.1 Point positioning with code pseudoranges 131
3.1.3 Basic principles of seismometers 85
4.6.2 Point positioning with carrier-beat phases 132
3.1.4 Current research topics in volcano
4.6.3 Static relative positioning 133
seismology 86
4.6.4 Kinematic relative positioning 133
3.2 Tiltmeters 89
4.6.5 Ambiguity resolution 134
3.2.1 Short-base bubble tiltmeters 89
4.7 Relative positioning techniques 135
3.2.2 The Ideal-Aerosmith mercury capacitance
4.7.1 Static GPS 135
tiltmeter 91
4.7.2 Stop-and-go kinematic GPS 137
3.2.3 Long-base fluid tiltmeters 91
4.7.3 Kinematic GPS 138
3.3 Strainmeters 95
4.7.4 Pseudokinematic GPS 138
3.3.1 Linear strainmeters (extensometers) 96
3.3.2 The Sacks–Evertson volumetric 4.7.5 Rapid static GPS 138
strainmeter 98 4.7.6 Real time kinematic OTF GPS 138
3.3.3 The Gladwin tensor strainmeter 99 4.7.7 Which type of GPS receiver and field
3.4 Continuous GPS 100 procedures are right for the job? 139
3.5 Some cautions about 4.8 CGPS networks 141
near-surface deformation sensors 101 4.8.1 GEONET – The national GPS network
3.6 Continuous gravimeters 102 of Japan 141
3.6.1 Absolute gravimeters 103 4.8.2 The US Continuously Operating Reference
3.6.2 Relative gravimeters – the magic of Station (CORS) network 142
zero-length springs and superconductivity 103 4.8.3 SCIGN – The Southern California
3.6.3 Gravity results from selected volcanoes 105 Integrated GPS Network 142
3.7 Differential lake gauging 107 4.8.4 PANGA – The Pacific Northwest
3.7.1 Monitoring active deformation at Lake Geodetic Array 142
Taupo, New Zealand 107 4.8.5 The discovery of slow earthquakes in the
3.7.2 Lake terraces as paleo-tiltmeters 107 Pacific Northwest 143
3.8 Concluding remarks 109 4.8.6 Tracking deformation events at K|·lauea
Volcano, Hawai0i, with CGPS 143
4 The Global Positioning System:
4.8.7 Continuous, real time GPS network at the
A multipurpose tool 111 Long Valley Caldera 145
4.1 Global positioning principles 112 4.9 Data processing 148
4.1.1 Reference surfaces and coordinate 4.9.1 GPS software packages 148
systems: the geoid and ellipsoid 112 4.9.2 Precise point positioning 148
4.1.2 Point positioning and relative positioning 113 4.10 Looking to the future 149
4.2 An overview of GPS, GLONASS, and 4.10.1 Lightweight, low-power GPS receivers 149
Galileo 114 4.10.2 Automated GPS data processing 150
4.2.1 Who controls GPS? 114 4.10.3 EarthScope and the PBO 151
4.2.2 NAVSTAR satellite constellation 115
5 Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar
4.2.3 GLONASS satellite constellation 115
(InSAR) 153
4.2.4 Galileo Global Navigation Satellite System 117
4.3 GPS signal structure: what do the 5.1 Radar principles and techniques 154
satellites broadcast? 117 5.1.1 Real-aperture imaging radar systems 157
4.3.1 L1 and L2 carrier signals, C/A-code, 5.1.2 Ground resolution of real-aperture imaging
P-code, and Y-code 118 radars 160
4.3.2 Selective availability and anti-spoofing 120 5.1.3 Synthetic-aperture radar 162
4.3.3 Navigation message 121 5.1.4 Characteristics of SAR images 166
4.4 Observables: what do GPS receivers 5.2 Principles of SAR interferometry 168
measure? 121 5.2.1 Co-registration of overlapping radar
4.4.1 Code pseudoranges 122 images 169
4.4.2 Carrier phase and carrier-beat phase 124 5.2.2 Creating the interferogram 170
4.5 Data combinations and differences 125 5.2.3 Removing the effects of viewing geometry
4.5.1 Wide-lane and narrow-lane combinations 125 and topography 171
Contents ix
5.2.4 Two-pass, three-pass, and four-pass 7.3 Yellowstone – the ups and downs of a
interferometry 173 restless caldera 248
5.2.5 DEMs derived from InSAR 175 7.3.1 Tectonic setting and eruptive history 248
5.2.6 Lidar, InSAR, and photogrammetry – a 7.3.2 Results of repeated leveling surveys 250
potent remote-sensing triad 176 7.3.3 What happened between leveling surveys? 253
5.2.7 Range-change resolution of InSAR 177 7.3.4 Causes of uplift and subsidence 255
5.2.8 Coping with decorrelation and 7.3.5 Spatiotemporal changes in deformation
atmospheric-delay anomalies 178 revealed by InSAR 259
5.2.9 Volcano InSAR studies: a growing list of 7.4 Long Valley Caldera and the Mono-Inyo
success stories 181 volcanic chain: two decades of unrest
5.3 Examples of interferometric SAR applied (and still counting?) 259
to volcanoes 182 7.4.1 Eruptive history and recent unrest 259
5.3.1 Mount Etna 182 7.4.2 Leveling results: tracking caldera inflation
5.3.2 Long Valley Caldera, California 183 in space and time 265
5.3.3 Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming 184 7.4.3 Regional and intracaldera trilateration
5.3.4 Akutan Volcano, Alaska 188 surveys 267
5.3.5 Westdahl Volcano, Alaska 191 7.4.4 Repeated and continuous GPS
5.3.6 Three Sisters volcanic center, Oregon 192 measurements 273
5.3.7 The future of volcano InSAR 193 7.4.5 Temporal gravity changes 274
7.4.6 Borehole strainmeter and long-base
6 Photogrammetry 195
tiltmeter results: implications of triggered
6.1 Introduction 195 seismicity 275
6.2 Historical perspective 195 7.4.7 Water-level changes induced by distant
6.3 Photogrammetry fundamentals 196 earthquakes: evidence for stimulated
6.3.1 Introduction 196 upward movement of magma or
6.3.2 Aerial cameras 197 hydrothermal fluid 277
6.3.3 Format, focal length, and field of view 198 7.4.8 Long Valley summary 278
6.3.4 Photo collection and scale 198
8 Analytical volcano deformation source
6.3.5 Relief displacement 199
models 279
6.3.6 Orientation 201
6.3.7 Photogrammetric accuracy 204 8.1 Introduction 279
6.4 Instrumentation and data types 205 8.2 The elastic half-space: a first
6.4.1 Analog stereoplotters 205 approximation of the Earth 280
6.4.2 Analytical stereoplotters 207 8.2.1 Properties of an isotropic linearly elastic
6.4.3 Softcopy stereoplotters 208 solid 280
6.4.4 Display systems 208 8.2.2 Elastic constants 280
6.4.5 Computer-assisted orientation 209 8.3 Notation 281
6.4.6 Digital elevation models 209 8.3.1 Coordinate system and displacements 281
6.4.7 Orthophotos 210 8.3.2 Stress and strain 281
6.4.8 Satellite imagery 210 8.3.3 Tilt 282
6.5 Aerotriangulation 211 8.4 Surface loads 282
6.6 Terrestrial photogrammetry 212 8.4.1 Deformation from point, uniform disk,
6.7 Application to Mount St. Helens 214 and uniform rectangular surface loads 282
8.5 Point forces, pipes, and spheroidal
7 Lessons from deforming volcanoes 223
pressure sources 285
7.1 Mount St. Helens – edifice instability and 8.5.1 Spheroidal cavities and pipes: model
dome growth 223 elements for inflating and deflating
7.1.1 Precursory activity: the north flank magma chambers and vertical conduits 286
‘bulge’ 224 8.5.2 Point pressure source 288
7.1.2 Monitoring and predicting the growth of 8.5.3 Finite spherical pressure source 290
a lava dome 232 8.5.4 Closed pipe: a model for a plugged
7.2 K|·lauea volcano, Hawai0i – flank conduit or a cigar-shaped magma
instability and gigantic landslides 235 chamber 292
7.2.1 The volcano’s mobile south flank: 8.5.5 Closed pipe tilt and strain components 293
historical activity 235 8.5.6 Open pipe: a composite model for the
7.2.2 Colossal prehistoric landslides and sea filling of an open conduit 294
waves 245 8.5.7 Sill-like magma chambers 296