Veterinary Physiology and Applied Anatomy A Textbook for Veterinary Nurses and Technicians

218 Pages·2005·50.11 MB·English

by  Louise Tartaglia

Veterinary
Physiology
and Applied
Anatomy
Veterinary Physiology and
Applied Anatomy:

A textbook for veterinary nurses and
technicians

Louise Tartaglia BSc(Hons) MSc
with
Anne Waugh BSc(Hons) MSc cert ed SRN RNT ILTM

af ‘COLLEGE OF
ANIMAL WELFARE

EDINBURGH LONDON NEWYORK OXFORD PHILADELPHIA ST.LOUIS SYDNEY TORONTO 2005
BUTTERWORTH-HEINEMANN
‘An imprint of Elsevier Limited

© 2002, Elsevier Limited. All ight

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First published 2002
Revised reprint published 2005
Reprinted 2005

ISBN 0 7506 8873 4

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Notice

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‘as new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug
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the recommended dose, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is
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determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient. Neither the Publisher

nor the editors/contributor assumes any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or
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‘The Publisher

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Preface
Acknowledgements

1 Basic principles of living matter
1.1 Basic biochemistry

Introduction
‘The chemistry of life
‘The atom
Chemical bonding
Solutes and solvents
Acids, alkalis and pH
SI units in practice
1.2 Cells, tissue and organs
Introduction:
Cellular structure and function
Cell division
Tissues
Organs and body systems
1.3 The mammalian body
Introduction
Anatomical terminology
Basic anatomy of the dog and cat
Body cavities
Homeostasis and body fluids
Review questions

2 Co-ordination and control

2.1 Nervous tissue
Introduction
Neurones and neuroglia
Classification of neurones
Nerve fibres
Neurophysiology
The transmembrane potential
‘The action potential
‘The nervous impulse

2.2 The nervous system
Introduction

‘The central nervous system
‘The brain,
“The spinal cord
‘The peripheral nervous system
‘The autonomic nervous system
23 Special senses
Introduction

Rods and cones
Protection of the eye
Audition
Gustation
Olfaction

2.4 The endocrine system
Introduction
Hormone
‘The hypothalamus
‘The pituitary gland
‘The pineal gland
‘The parathyroid glands
The thyroid gland
The thyrmus
The heart
The digestive tract

3 Support and movement
3.1 The skeletal system
Introduction
‘The skeleton
‘The formation and structure of bone
Classification of bones
Features of the surfaces of bone

SSBPRAALALRSSSHSAGRBVSERS

70
vi

Contents

32

33

The muscular system
Introduction

Muscle tissue

Striated (voluntary) muscle
Muscle contraction

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Smooth (involuntary) muscle
Cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscles

Joints

Introduction

Joint classification
Movement of a synovial joint
Ligaments

Tendons

Review questions

4 Transport

4d

42

Blood
Introduction
Blood

Plasma

Blood corpuscles (cells)
Haemopoi
Haemostasis
Fibrinolysis
The cardiovascular system
Introduction
Anatomy of the heart
Cardiac muscle
Heart vaives
Heartbeat and conduetion
‘The vascular system
Heart rate and cardiac output
Blood pressure
Shook

Review questions

5 Attainment of nutrients and disposal

of waste

3.

5.2

‘The digestive system
Introduction

The digestive process

The digestive or alimentary tract
Digestive secretions

The exocrine function of the pancreas

Bile

Absorption of the products of digestion

Defecation
‘Vomniting or emesis
‘The liver
Introduction

Metabolism of the products of
aio
The composition of blood
3.3 The urinary system
Introduction
Structure of the urinary system
Structure and function of the kidney
‘The ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
Neural control of urination
Composition of urine
5.4 The respiratory system
Introduction
Basic principles of respiration
Composition of inspired and expired
air
Structure of the respiratory system
‘The mechanism of respiration
Control of respiration
Review questions

6 Survival, development and defence

6.1 The integument
Introduction
Structure of the integument/skin
Specialization of the integument
Hair
Specialized glands

6.2 ‘The defence function
Introduction
Non-specific defences
Specific defence: immunity

6.3 The lymphatic system
Introduction
Circulation of tissue fluid
Structure of the lymphatic system
Lymphatic tissue

6.4 Reproduction
Introduction
‘The male reproductive system
‘The female reproductive system
Mating and pregnancy
Parturition
Lactation

Review questions

References
Further Reading
Answers
Glossary

Index

122
123
123
123
123
124
128
128
128
129
129
129

130
130
132
134
136

139
139
139
139
141
143
14
144
144
144
145
147
147
147
148
149
149
149
150
152
154
162
163
164

167
168
169
183

205
meiretace

Before we can start to consider the complex
structure and function of the mammalian body we
should consider some general terminology.

‘The word around which the content of this book
is focused is ‘physiology’. This is derived from
Greek and means ‘the science of the processes of
life in plants and animals’ or, to be more specific to
veterinary studies, ‘the study of how animals
perform their vital functions”,

‘Another closely related word, without which
physiology would have difficulty existing, is
‘anatomy’. This is ‘the science of the structure of

the body’ of, more specifically, “the study of the
structure of the internal and extemal body
‘structures’.

As the structure of an object is always related to
its function (there would be little point in trying to
‘use a spoon to cut a steak or a knife to eat a bow!
of soup), it is difficult, if not impossible, to study
the physiology of any living organism without
considering its anatomy. Consequently, although
this text will focus primarily upon the physiology
of the mammalian body, reference will also be
needed to basic anatomy.

Louise Tartaglia
Anne Waugh
1 would like to thank the College of Animal
Welfare, in particular Barbara Cooper for the
‘opportunity to write this text and for her support,
advice and guidance. I would also like to thank my
husband Andy for his Veterinary advice and Anne
for her constructive comments during its comple-
tion. Finally, 1 would like to thank my students

pest, present and future for the continuing chal-
Tenge in helping each of them reach an undes-
standing of what to many, is a complex subject.
hope that this text goes some way in helping them
and encouraging them to keep asking ‘How’" and
“why

Louise Tartaglia
CHAPTER

1

matter

1.1 Basic biochemistry

Ce
Introduction Sey

To examine the complex working systems of the
mammalian body, we need to have an under-
standing of the basic chemical principles and
Uieories that determine the biochemical reactions
involved in living processes. These will, in tum,
help us to understand the more complex processes
occurring at a cellular level and ultimately within
the tissues, organs, and systems that form the body
asa whole,

The chemistry of life
‘The tom

‘Chemical bonding
Solutes and solvents
‘Acids, alkalis and pl
ST units in practice

The chemistry of life

The study of the chemistry of living systems is
termed biochemistry. It examines the molecular
reactions that occur during living processes and
consequently requires an understanding of both
chemistry and biology.

Perhaps the best place to stat is at the
beginning, with the smallest, indivisible (until
recently) part of everything, the atom.

The atom

Before we think about the atom, we need to
consider some other chemical terminology.

Basic principles of living

‘An element is a pure substance that cannot be
split up by a chemical reaction. There are 92
naturally occurring elements and some 13 more
man-made, The majority are solid or metallic but
some are liquid or gases at room temperature and
salmospheric pressure.

Examples of solids include: carbon, calcium, iran, zine
[Examples of liquids include: mercury, bromine
Examples of gases include: hydrogen. oxygen, nitrogen

Each element has its own chemical symbol that is
used as a form of shorthand. The symbols for some
of the more common elements found in the
mammalian body are shown in Table 1.1,

‘A compound is the combination of two or more
elements to form a chemical substance. Certain
mixtures or elements react together (usually when
heated) to form compounds. Energy is usually
released when mixtures/elements combine to form
compounds. The compounds formed have very
different properties from their constituent le-
ments. Splitting a compound is not usually an easy
process.

An example of a compound is water, which is
formed from hydrogen and oxygen

‘® The chemical symbol for the clement hydrogen
isH

@ The chemical symbol for the element oxygen is
oO

© As geses, hydrogen and oxygen atoms always
exist in pairs, therefore the symbol for oxygen
gas is Os and for hydrogen gas, Hy.

‘© When forming the compound water, two hydro-
‘gen atoms always combine with one atom of
Veterinary Physiology and Applied Anatomy

Table 1.1 Common elements found in the
‘mammalian body

Element Atomic Anproximato
‘symbol porcantage
‘by weight

Oxygen ° 5
Carbon® © 8
Hydrogen* 4 ‘0
Nitrogen® N
Calcium Ca
Phosphorus? P
Potassium® k
Sulphur® s
Sodium’ Na
Chlorine’ cl
Magnesium? Mg
leon Fo
inet Zn
Copper cu
lodine® 1
Manganese" Mn ,
Chromiue® cr .
Molybdenum Mo .

‘ss .

Se #

oxygen gas, therefore the reaction can be
represented as:

2Hq (3) + Op (g) > 2H;0 (1),

Hydrogen gu) + Oxygen gas) > Water giquiay

‘The atom can be defined as the smallest part of an
clement that can exist whilst retaining the physical
and chemical properties of that element. Fach
element has its own particular atom which is
<ifferent from all other atoms, however they are all
made up of three basic subatomic particles:

1. Protons (p)
2, Neutrons (n)
3. Electrons (e”)

Table 1.2 shows the mass and charge of the
differem sub-atomic particles. A diagrammatic
representation of their location within the arom is
shown in Figure 1.1,

Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus
and have the same relative mass. The much smaller

Table 1.2 Properties of sub-atomic particles

Particle ‘Relative Relative Location
‘mass charge.

Neutron 1 ° pucteus

Proton 1 + nucleus

Electron S.4x104 0-1 orbital shells

©

© ©
oe

© ecwuce ©

ce

© ©
©

oe © © ¢
©

Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of the
structure of an atom. Electrons travel around the
‘nucleus at certain energy levels and protons and
neutrons pack together in the nucleus

electrons (with negligible mass) are located in
‘orbital shells around the nucleus. Each shell can
only accommodate a certain number of electrons
and those further away from the nucleus contain
electrons with a higher energy level than those in
the inner orbitals

Tn an atom, the number of negatively charged
electrons always equals the number of positively
charged protons and consequently, the atom has n0
charge (is neutral). The atomic number of an atom
is equal to the number of electrons or protons and
is different for each element. The mass number of
tan element is the sum of the neutrons and protons
in the atom (those sub-atomic partictes that have a
significant mess). For example:

‘© Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, because it
has 1 proton and I electron. Its mass number is
also 1, a8 it has 1 proton but no neutrons.