Table Of ContentUse of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
http://www.nap.edu/catalog/5175.html
i
Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge
in Food Crop Production
Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production
of Crops for Human Consumption
Water Science and Technology Board
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1996
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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ii
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose mem-
bers are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting
of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
Support for this project was provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Grant No. CX820717-01-0, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
Grant No. 3-FG-81-19140, U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Grant No. 59-0700-4-067, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, National Water Research Institute, Water Environment Research Foundation, Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agen-
cies, National Food Processors Association, Eastern Municipal Water District in California, Metropolitan Water Districts of Southern Califor-
nia, Bio Gro Division of Wheelabrator Water Technologies, and N-Viro International Corporation.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 96-67381
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05479-6
Additional copies of this report are available from: National Academy Press 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Box 285 Washington, D.C.
20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)
B-720
Copyright © 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Cover depicts a farm field with a specialized truck for injecting sludge into the soil. A wastewater treatment plant is in the background. Art
by Ellen Hill-Godfrey of Kensington, Maryland.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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iii
Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the
Production of Crops for Human Consumption
ALBERT L. PAGE, Chair, University of California, Riverside
ABATENI AYANABA, Del Monte Foods, Walnut Creek, California
MICHAEL S. BARAM, Boston University Law School, Massachusetts
GARY W. BARRETT, University of Georgia, Athens
WILLIAM G. BOGGESS, Oregon State University, Corvallis
ANDREW CHANG, University of California, Riverside
ROBERT C. COOPER, BioVir Laboratories, Inc., Benicia, California
RICHARD I. DICK, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
STEPHEN P. GRAEF, Western Carolina Regional Sewer Authority, Greenville, South Carolina
THOMAS E. LONG, Washington State Department of Health, Olympia
CATHERINE ST. HILAIRE, Hershey Foods Corporation, Hershey, Pennsylvania
JOANN SILVERSTEIN, University of Colorado, Boulder
SARAH CLARK STUART, Consultant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
PAUL E. WAGGONER, The Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station, New Haven
Staff
GARY KRAUSS, Study Director
MARY BETH MORRIS, Senior Project Assistant
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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Water Science and Technology Board
DAVID L. FREYBERG, Chair, Stanford University, Stanford, California
BRUCE E. RITTMANN, Vice Chair, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
LINDA M. ABRIOLA, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
PATRICK L. BREZONIK, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
JOHN BRISCOE, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
WILLIAM M. EICHBAUM, The World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C.
WILFORD R. GARDNER, University of California, Berkeley (retired)
THOMAS M. HELLMAN, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, New York, New York
CAROL A. JOHNSTON, University of Minnesota, Duluth
WILLIAM M. LEWIS, JR., University of Colorado, Boulder
JOHN W. MORRIS,J.W. Morris Limited, Arlington, Virginia
CAROLYN H. OLSEN, Brown and Caldwell, Pleasant Hill, California
CHARLES R. O'MELIA, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
REBECCA PARKIN, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
IGNACIO RODRIGUEZ-ITURBE, Texas A&M University, College Station
FRANK W. SCHWARTZ, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
HENRY J. VAUX, JR., University of California, Riverside
Staff
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director
SHEILA D. DAVID, Senior Staff Officer
CHRIS ELFRING, Senior Staff Officer
JACQUELINE MACDONALD, Senior Staff Officer
GARY D. KRAUSS, Staff Officer
ETAN GUMERMAN, Research Associate
JEANNE AQUILINO, Administrative Associate
ANGELA F. BRUBAKER, Senior Project Assistant
ANITA A. HALL, Administrative Assistant
MARY BETH MORRIS, Senior Project Assistant
ELLEN DE GUZMAN, Project Assistant
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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v
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources
M. GORDON WOLMAN, Chair, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
PATRICK R. ATKINS, Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
JAMES P. BRUCE, Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa, Canada
WILLIAM L. FISHER, University of Texas, Austin
JERRY F. FRANKLIN, University of Washington, Seattle
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
DEBRA S. KNOPMAN, Progressive Foundation, Washington, D.C.
PERRY L. MCCARTY, Stanford University, Stanford, California
JUDITH E. MCDOWELL, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
S. GEORGE PHILANDER, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada
THOMAS C. SCHELLING, University of Maryland, College Park
ELLEN K. SILBERGELD, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore
STEVEN M. STANLEY, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL, Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
Staff
STEPHEN RATTIEN, Executive Director
STEPHEN D. PARKER, Associate Executive Director
MORGAN GOPNIK, Assistant Executive Director
GREGORY SYMMES, Reports Officer
JAMES E. MALLORY, Administrative Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
SUSAN SHERWIN, Project Assistant
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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vi
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished
scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the
Congress in 1863, the Acade my has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on
scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy
of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in
the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising
the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at
meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of
engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the
services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to
the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of
Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own
initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate
the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and
advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the
Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of
Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public,
and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies
and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman,
respectively, of the National Research Council.
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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PREFACE vii
Preface
In early 1993, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Office of Wastewater Compliance and
Enforcement suggested to the National Research Council's Water Science and Technology Board (WSTB) that it
should consider undertaking a study of public health and public perception issues associated with the use of treated
municipal wastewater and sludge in the production of crops for human consumption. At the time, EPA was just
finalizing the Part 503 Sludge Rule, Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge, and one of the major
implementation concerns was with the food processing industry's reluctance to accept the practice. When EPA
first promulgated criteria for land application of municipal wastewater sludges to cropland in 1979, some food
processors questioned the safety of selling food crops grown on sludge-amended soils and their liability. In
response, the principal federal agencies involved—EPA, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)—developed a Joint Statement of Federal Policy in 1981 to assure that
current high standards of food quality would not be compromised by the use of high quality sludges and proper
management practices. Nevertheless, the food processing industry remains concerned about safety and market
acceptability, and at least one company has adopted an official policy that bans the purchase of any crops grown
on fields receiving municipal sewage sludge or treated municipal wastewater. With the issuance of the Part 503
Sludge Rule in 1993, public concerns with a number of technical, regulatory, and environmental issues have
surfaced. Because cropland application of both sludge and wastewater represent important management options,
municipal wastewater management officials have a vital interest in the feasibility of these practices.
Therefore, in mid-1993, WSTB formed a committee representing diverse expertise and perspectives to
conduct an independent study of the safety and practicality of the use of these materials for the production of crops
for human consumption. The study sought to review (1) the historical development, rationale, and scope of the
practice of treating municipal wastewater and sludge in the United States; (2) wastewater treatment technologies
and procedures for agricultural use of these materials; (3) effects on soils, crop production, and ground water; (4)
public health concerns about microbiological agents and toxic chemicals; (5) existing regulations
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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PREFACE viii
and guidelines; and (6) economic, liability, and institutional issues. The committee based its review on existing
published literature and discussions with experts in the field. The committee was not constituted to conduct an
independent risk assessment of possible health effects, but instead to review the method and procedures used by
EPA in its extensive risk assessment, which was the basis for the Part 503 Sludge Rule.
The committee met five times over a 17-month period including field visits to the Irvine Ranch Water
District in California, the CONSERV II Water Reclamation Program of Orange County and Orlando, Florida, and
the Disney World, Florida reuse programs. The committee also held a one-day workshop at Rutgers University in
New Brunswick, New Jersey to hear from researchers, public interest groups, farm credit bureaus, farmers, and
state and city planners on land application of municipal sludge in the Northeast.
The committee focused primarily on the issues surrounding the use of treated municipal wastewater effluents
and treated sludge in food crop production, concentrating on the uptake of chemical constituents and pathogens by
food crops. The study did not include an investigation of what happens after the crops are harvested (e.g.,
processing of food products). Further, the committee was not constituted to evaluate site-specific implementation
of wastewater effluent and sludge reuse projects, or to compare the relative merits and risks of various other forms
of disposal or beneficial uses. However, the committee recognized that in addition to the safety and practicality of
using these materials on food crops, there are many implementation issues involved with the agricultural use of
municipal wastewater and sludge including the degree to which the regulations are implemented and enforced, the
public confidence in local reuse programs, local nuisance and traffic problems, environmental and product liability
issues, and overall public perceptions. In several of these areas, this report notes particular findings that should
receive the attention of federal, state, and local authorities responsible for implementing reuse projects.
It is hoped that this report will be particularly useful to food processors, states, and municipalities in assessing
the use of treated municipal wastewater and sludge in producing crops for human consumption. It highlights
public concerns and regulatory issues likely to be faced, and also identifies some additional areas for research.
The Committee on the Use of Treated Municipal Wastewater Effluents and Sludge in the Production of Crops
for Human Consumption consisted of 14 members with experience in soil and crop science, agricultural
engineering, wastewater and sludge treatment, soil microbiology, toxicology, ecology, infectious disease, public
health, economics, law, and other relevant fields. The committee gained insights from a far larger group by
inviting guests to its meetings, participating in field trips, and reviewing the literature. My great appreciation goes
to the committee, each of whom gave significant time and energy to create this report. Additionally, I would like to
thank Rufus Chaney and Richard Bord for providing their time and resources to the study. I want to thank the staff
of the WSTB, especially Gary Krauss, study director, and Mary Beth Morris, project assistant. I would also like to
thank the study sponsors: the EPA, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the USDA, the FDA, the National Water
Research Institute, the Water Environment Research Foundation, the National Food Processors Association, the
Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies, California's Eastern Municipal Water District,
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production
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PREFACE ix
the Metropolitan Water Districts of Southern California, Bio Gro Division of Wheelabrator Water Technologies,
and N-Viro International Corporation. Without this support, the study would not have occurred.
Albert Page
University of California, Riverside
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PREFACE x
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