use of cognitive artifacts in chemistry learning

203 Pages·2017·11.04 MB·English

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Theses, Student Research, and Creative Activity:
Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher
Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher
Education
Education
Summer 7-2011
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Ilker Yengin
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected]
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Yengin, Ilker, "USE OF COGNITIVE ARTIFACTS IN CHEMISTRY LEARNING" (2011). Theses, Student
Research, and Creative Activity: Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. 13.
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USE OF COGNITIVE ARTIFACTS IN CHEMISTRY LEARNING
by

Ilker Yengin

A DISSERTATION

Presented to the Faculty of
The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska
In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements
For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Major: Educational Studies
(Instructional Technology)

Under the Supervision of Professor David W. Brooks
Lincoln, Nebraska

August, 2011
USE OF COGNITIVE ARTIFACTS IN CHEMISTRY LEARNING
Ilker Yengin, Ph.D.
University of Nebraska, 2011
Advisor: David W. Brooks

In everyday life, we interact with cognitive artifacts to receive and/or manipulate
information so as to alter our thinking processes. CHEM/TEAC 869Q is a distance course
that includes extensive explicit instruction in the use of a cognitive artifact. This study
investigates issues related to the design of that online artifact. In order to understand
design implications and how cognitive artifacts contribute to students’ thinking and
learning, a qualitative research methodology was engaged that utilized think aloud
sessions. Participants’ described constrained and structured cognitive models while using
the artifact. The study also was informed by interviews and researcher's field notes. A
purposeful sampling method led to the selection of participants, four males and two
females, who had no prior history of using a course from the 869 series but who had
experienced the scientific content covered by the CHEM869Q course. Analysis of the
results showed both that a cognitive artifact may lead users’ minds in decision making,
and that problem solving processes were affected by cognitive artifact's design. When
there is no design flaw, users generally thought that the cognitive artifact was helpful by
simplifying steps, overcoming other limitations, and reducing errors in a reliable,
effective, and easy to use way. Moreover, results showed that successful implementation
of cognitive artifacts into teaching –learning practices depended on user willingness to
transfer a task to the artifact. While users may like the idea of benefiting from a cognitive
artifact, nevertheless, they may tend to limit their usage. They sometimes think that
delegating a task to a cognitive artifact makes them dependent, and that they may not
learn how to perform the tasks by themselves. They appear more willing to use a
cognitive artifact after they have done the task by themselves.
Table of Contents

TABLE
 OF
 CONTENTS
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 I

LIST
 OF
 FIGURES
 ...................................................................................................................................................
 III

LIST
 OF
 TABLES
 .....................................................................................................................................................
 IV

CHAPTER
 I
 .................................................................................................................................................................
 1

INTRODUCTION
 ..............................................................................................................................................................................
 1

Significance
 of
 the
 Study
 .......................................................................................................................................................
 3

Purpose
 Statement
 ...................................................................................................................................................................
 5

Limitations
 and
 Delimitations
 of
 the
 Study
 ..................................................................................................................
 5

CHAPTER
 II
 ................................................................................................................................................................
 6

REVIEW
 OF
 THE
 LITERATURE
 .....................................................................................................................................................
 6

What
 is
 a
 cognitive
 artifact?
 ...............................................................................................................................................
 6

What
 are
 the
 Differences
 between
 Tools,
 Artifacts,
 and
 Cognitive
 Artifacts?
 ...............................................
 8

Using
 Cognitive
 Artifacts
 in
 Science
 .................................................................................................................................
 9

Using
 Cognitive
 Artifacts
 in
 Science
 Learning
 ..........................................................................................................
 11

Using
 Educational
 Technology
 in
 Chemistry
 Education:
 .....................................................................................
 14

Using
 Professional
 Software
 in
 Chemistry
 Learning
 ........................................................................................................
 16

Using
 Cognitive
 Artifacts
 in
 Balancing
 Equations:
 .............................................................................................................
 18

StoiCalc
 as
 a
 Cognitive
 Artifact
 .......................................................................................................................................
 19

CHAPTER
 III
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 21

METHODOLOGY
 ..........................................................................................................................................................................
 21

IRB
 Approval:
 ..........................................................................................................................................................................
 21

Participant
 Sampling:
 .........................................................................................................................................................
 21

Recruiting
 Participants:
 .....................................................................................................................................................
 22

Participants
 Benefits:
 ..........................................................................................................................................................
 24

Data
 Collection:
 ......................................................................................................................................................................
 24

Data
 Collection
 Protocols:
 ............................................................................................................................................................
 25

Recording
 and
 storing
 data:
 ........................................................................................................................................................
 28

Equipment
 and
 Settings:
 ...............................................................................................................................................................
 29

Data
 Collection
 Procedure
 ............................................................................................................................................................
 30

Think
 Aloud
 Sessions
 and
 Follow-­‐up
 Interviews:
 ....................................................................................................
 31

Field
 issues:
 ...............................................................................................................................................................................
 34

Reliability
 Procedures:
 ........................................................................................................................................................
 34

Validation
 Strategies:
 ..........................................................................................................................................................
 34

CHAPTER
 IV
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 36

RESULTS
 ......................................................................................................................................................................................
 36

Introduction
 .............................................................................................................................................................................
 36

Data
 Analysis
 ......................................................................................................................................................................................
 36

Coding
 Procedure
 .............................................................................................................................................................................
 37

Questions
 Lead
 the
 Mind:
 ...................................................................................................................................................
 39

The
 StoiCalc
 Interface
 Leads
 the
 Mind:
 .......................................................................................................................
 43

i
Understanding
 StoiCalc
 Interface
 Scheme
 ............................................................................................................................
 44

Good
 and
 Bad
 Intentions
 of
 StoiCalc:
 What
 happens
 when
 it
 Directs
 Users.
 .........................................................
 67

Expressing
 yourself
 to
 StoiCalc
 (Input):
 ................................................................................................................................
 82

Incorrect
 Expressions
 and
 “Hidden
 Treasures”:
 ..........................................................................................................
 87

Need
 For
 a
 Validation
 Method
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 90

Understanding
 StoiCalc
 Expressions
 (Output):
 ..................................................................................................................
 97

Need
 For
 Understanding
 Internals
 ..................................................................................................................................
 104

Help
 me,
 save
 me:
 .........................................................................................................................................................................
 113

User
 Habits
 and
 Transfer
 of
 Knowledge:
 ............................................................................................................................
 123

Happy
 Ending:
 (StoiCalc
 as
 a
 cognitive
 artifact).
 ................................................................................................
 128

Everything
 StoiCalc
 does,
 it
 does
 it
 for
 you:
 StoiCalc

 Simplifies
 Steps
 .................................................................
 129

The
 power
 of
 Computers:
 StoiCalc
 Overcomes
 Limitations
 of
 Calculating
 Slow:
 .............................................
 134

StoiCalc
 Saves
 The
 Day:
 StoiCalc
 Reduces
 Errors
 in
 Calculations.
 ...........................................................................
 137

Does
 StoiCalc
 Lie?:

 StoiCalc
 is
 Reliable
 ...............................................................................................................................
 139

StoiCalc
 Does
 its
 Job:
 Effectiveness
 of
 StoiCalc

 :
 ............................................................................................................
 140

It
 is
 not
 Rocket
 Science:
 StoiCalc
 is
 easy
 to
 use.
 ...............................................................................................................
 141

What
 is
 the
 place
 of
 StoiCalc
 in
 Learning?
 ..............................................................................................................
 144

New
 possibilities
 with
 StoiCalc.
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 144

Old
 Mind
 Sets:
 .................................................................................................................................................................................
 152

Modern
 tools
 for
 modern
 Society:
 .........................................................................................................................................
 160

CHAPTER
 V
 ...........................................................................................................................................................
 162

DISCUSSION
 AND
 CONCLUSION
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 162

REFERENCES
 ........................................................................................................................................................
 172

APPENDIX
 A:
 IRB
 CONSENT
 FORMS
 .............................................................................................................
 184

APPENDIX
 B:
 DEMOGRAPHIC
 INFORMATION
 FORM
 ..............................................................................
 188

APPENDIX
 C:
 THINK
 ALOUD
 AND
 FOLLOW
 UP
 INTERVIEW
 PROTOCOLS
 .......................................
 190

APPENDIX
 D:
 AUDITOR’S
 REPORT
 ...............................................................................................................
 195

ii
List of Figures
FIGURE 3.1 DATA COLLECTION PROTOCOLS
 .......................................................................................................................
 26

FIGURE 3.2 TEST ROOM EQUIPMENT AND SETTINGS
 ........................................................................................................
 29

FIGURE 3.3 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
 .......................................................................................................................
 33

FIGURE 5.1 STOICALC AS COGNITIVE ARTIFACT
 ..............................................................................................................
 162

FIGURE 5.2 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN USERS AND QUESTIONS, USERS AND INTERFACE
 .......................................
 164

FIGURE 5.3 HOW THE MIND DIRECTED IN STOICALC DESIGN
 ......................................................................................
 166

iii
List of Tables
TABLE 3.1. MULTIPLE FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION
 ...........................................
 ERROR!
 BOOKMARK
 NOT
 DEFINED.

iv
1
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Donald Norman (2006) concluded an interview with Forbes, with the following
words:
“What tools have had the biggest impact upon civilization? Cognitive
artifacts. Tools for the mind.”
Modern humans expand their cognitive abilities using symbol systems, external
representations and tools. According to Norman (1994) “in today's world, we have taken
evolution into our own hands, providing external devices - what I have called ‘cognitive
artifacts’ to expand our abilities beyond that which our biological heritage alone make
possible.”
Any devices that humans interact with to receive and/or manipulate information
in order to engage in a thinking process are considered as cognitive artifacts (Norman,
1991). Symbol systems on calendars, color-coding schemes, the sound of a warning
timer, and computers are some examples of cognitive artifacts (Spillers, 2003).
Aiding humans to extend and stimulate thinking capacities (Salomon, Perkins &
Globerson, 1991) to overcome limitations in problem solving and decision making
(Spillers & Loewus-Deitch 2003) makes cognitive artifacts different from other tools
(McGerry, 2005). Because of aiding memory, attention, and information processing,
cognitive artifacts improve cognition and utilize the process of thinking, remembering,
and problem-solving (Norman, 1991; Hutchins, 1999). Additionally, cognitive artifacts
help to minimize errors in task attainment (Hutchins, 1999).
Cognitive artifacts don’t change the capacity of human mind. Instead, they change
the way of using knowledge and the way of interacting with knowledge (Zhang &
2
Norman, 1994). Without the help of cognitive artifacts it would be very difficult or even
impossible to construct some knowledge and knowledge interrelationships (Hutchins,
1995a).
According to Norman (2006), “These cognitive tools are so essential to
civilization that we send our children to school for decades.” For instance, computers,
(examples of cognitive artifacts) are helping to improve both learning and teaching
(Cuban, 2001). In addition, the use of computers in classrooms has increased student
learning and interest (Kulik, 2003; Weller, 1996). Once used as passive “page turners,”
today computers serve as cognitive artifacts to aid student thinking in ways similar to
those in which professionals use these tools (Runge et al., 1999). In spite of
improvements in cognitive artifacts for learning, integration of these tools within
curricula has been underwhelming (N. Bitner & J. Bitner, 2002); daily classroom
activities have not changed much (Gifford & Enyedy, 1999; Cuban, Kirkpatrick & Peck,
2001; Wright &Wilson, 2006; Su, 2009; Glifonea & Mayani, 2011), possibly because of
cultural beliefs about teaching and the organization of schools (Cuban, 1993).
Many of the artifacts that are used in education are physical and symbolic artifacts
such as ink marks on a paper or scientific languages and notations. The use of digital
devices and computer systems as cognitive artifacts is increasing, however. New
possibilities to aid students in learning environments are emerging. How should teaching
practices change so as to enable students to be able to use cognitive artifacts as
professional tools? There is a need for understanding integration of computers as
cognitive artifacts in education in order to understand how to use them. The current
literature has focused on the use of cognitive artifacts in everyday use (Norman, 1993,