Table Of ContentWriting with the authority that comes only with years of experience in government,
Ambassador Edward Marks and Michael Kraft have produced a splendid history of
America’s long campaign against terrorism. This edition analyzes the recent changes
in technology and tactics that have profoundly altered today’s terrorist challenge. For
those who truly want to understand where we are and how we got there, start here.
Brain Michael Jenkins
The Rand Corporation
I have been involved in the fight against terrorism since joining the Air Force in 1970.
This book provides important perspective on where the United States has been in this
fight and how that fight must evolve in the new administration. It is must reading for
the Trump Administration and anyone else seriously concerned about the next steps
in this long struggle.
Brig. Gen. Francis X Taylor
USAF (Rtd.), Former U.S. Coordinator for Counterterrorism and DHS Under
Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
Michael Kraft and Ambassador (Rtd.) Edward Marks have produced an indispens-
able guide to U.S. counterterrorism efforts and policies spanning five decades and
nine presidencies. Their delineation of a constantly evolving threat and the various
responses embarked upon by successive presidential administrations fills a significant
gap in the literature by providing an invaluable historical context to this unending
struggle.
Professor Bruce Hoffman
Director, Security Studies
Georgetown University
A clear and comprehensive survey of American policy toward terrorism over the past
half century by two experienced practitioners in the field. Their expert evaluation is
well-documented and impartial, and it provides essential background for analysis of
future policy.
Martha Crenshaw
Center for International Security and Cooperation
Stanford University
This excellent book provides an informed and detailed history of U.S. counterterror-
ism policy. It also includes a remarkable compilation of key counterterrorism docu-
ments illustrating the development of U.S. policy. The book is a must-read for those
working counterterrorism anywhere in the world.
John Norton Moore
Walter L. Brown Professor of Law
and
Director of the Center for National Security Law of the University of
Virginia
This important new book from Ambassador Edward Marks and Michael Kraft distills
insights on terrorism from careers that include roles as policy-makers, practitioners
and students of the terrorism trends with distinguished service in multiple capacities
and organizations within the U.S. national security system. A particular strength of
the book, in this reviewer’s opinion, is the way it draws upon Ambassador Edward
Marks’ previous trenchant analysis of organizational limitations and remedies in the
national security system and the Department of State.
Christopher J. Lamb
Distinguished Research Fellow, Institute for National Strategic Studies
National Defense University
The accuracy and granularity of the first Michael Kraft/Edward Marks book on U.S.
counterterrorism (U.S. Counterterrorism: A Guide to Who Does What) made it one
of the references most at hand when I write and teach. Six years on, many in the field
will welcome this newer companion. Updates include such topics as U.S. policy and
strategy under Obama, new technology issues (e.g., drones), the FBI’s use of “stings”
to catch Islamist terrorists living among us, the wider and developing use of Special
Forces overseas, and growing emphasis on “countering violent extremism.”
Christopher C. Harmon
Daniel K Inouye Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
Lead editor, Toward A Grand Strategy against Terrorism (McGraw-Hill, 2010)
A rich historical compendium and valuable geopolitical context essential to
understanding and projecting the undiminished global threat for the concerned
public and government policy officials alike.
Tony Porcaro
Retired CIA and National Intelligence Council Officer
As we confront an array of threats from trained ISIS fighters, unidentified lone
wolves, or cyber warriors acting alone or on behalf of a terrorist group or a nation
state, it becomes readily apparent that a logical, coherent, and fact-based review of
past strategies and future choices is essential if we are to successfully confront these
emerging dangers. U.S. Counterterrorism, by Michael Kraft and Edward Marks,
provides this necessary, comprehensive, and timely review. Practitioners and those
interested in careers in intelligence, law enforcement, diplomatic, or military services
would do well to study this important work and take into account the valuable lessons
learned over time when crafting future policy, tactical, and strategic counterterrorism
decisions.
Mike Rolince
Former FBI agent in charge of the Counterterrorism Division
Washington Office
U.S. Counterterrorism
From Nixon to Trump –
Key Challenges, Issues, and Responses
Michael B. Kraft
Edward Marks
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-0615-5 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know
so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.
copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
(CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza-
tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been
granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Name: Kraft, Michael, 1937 - author. | Marks, Edward, 1934 - author.
Title: U.S. counterterrorism : from Nixon to Trump : key challenges, issues,
and responses / Michael B. Kraft and Edward Marks.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017034020| ISBN 9781498706155 (hardback : alk. Paper) |
ISBN 9781315371610 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Terrorism--United States--Prevention--History--20th century.
|Terrorism--United States--Prevention--History--21st century.
Classification: LCC HV6432.K689 2018 | DDC 363.325/17--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017034020
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
We dedicate this book to the all too many victims of terrorism
around the world, and to the many thousands of men and women
in the government services of many countries who work to prevent
future attacks, “succor the afflicted,” and “punish the wicked.”
Contents
Foreword xi
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
Authors xxi
Chapter 1 Overview of the Terrorism Threat
from Nixon to Trump 1
The Bush Administration 6
The Obama Administration 9
Countering Violent Extremism 12
Cybersecurity 13
Impending Policy Questions for the Trump Administration 14
Chapter 2 Terrorism Definitions, Sanctions,
and Legislations 19
Definitions of Terrorism 19
U.S. Definitions 20
Additional Resources 23
Sanctions 24
Counterterrorism Legislation 29
The Long-Arm Statute 31
Nonstate Actors 32
Civil Suits 35
Weapons of Mass Destruction 37
After 9/11—USA Patriot Act 38
vii
viii Contents
Military Commissions Act of 2006, Amended
by the Military Commissions Act of 2009 42
Other Legislation Enacted or Modified since
September 11, 2001 43
Prosecution and Detention of Terrorists 43
Background 44
Prosecution 46
National Intelligence Reform Act of 2004 47
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA)
Amendments Act of 2008 47
Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform
Act of 2002 (H.R. 3525, Public Law No. 107–173) 48
The Secure Fence Act of 2006, H.R. 6061,
Public Law No. 109–367 48
International Emergency Economic Powers Act
(U.S. Code Title 50, Chapter 35) 48
Public Health Security and Bioterrorism
Preparedness and Response Act of 2002
(H.R. 3448, Public Law 107–188) 49
Project Bioshield Act of 2004 (Public Law 108–276) 49
Sanctions and Legislation 50
Resources (Partial) for Counterterrorism Laws 50
Additional Readings 50
Chapter 3 Background: Nixon to Clinton 53
Rise of Contemporary Terrorism 54
The Era of Terrorism and Religion 56
Hijacking, Kidnappings, and Other Techniques 57
At Home: Homeland Threats 61
US Government Responses 61
U.S. Began to Use Overt Military Actions 63
Chapter 4 Changes in Counterterrorism Policy in
Bush Administration Following 9/11 67
Reforms and Reorganization 70
Chapter 5 Obama Administration: Policy and
Program Responses 77
Background 77
Responses 79
Contents ix
Cyber Issues 87
Countering Violent Extremism and Lone Wolves 93
International Cooperaton 100
Programs 102
Chapter 6 The Policy Challenge for the
Trump Administration 109
The Early Days—Strategic and Rhetorical 114
The First Year—Tactical and Operational 117
Looking Ahead 120
Key Documents 123
Bibliography 207
Index 211
