UROLOGY Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP HISTORY

32 Pages·2001·1.28 MB·English

UROLOGY
Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP
HISTORY
FEVER and Systemic Manifestations
FEMALE - fever uncommon with uncomplicated cystitis; high fevers suggest pyelonephritis
MALE: fever uncommon - implies more serious etiology
- Pyelonephritis
- Acute prostatitis
- Acute epididymitis
- Malignancy: kidney, bladder, testes
- CRF: weight loss and malaise
PAIN: usually associated with distention
- Hollow viscus:
- Uretal obstruction
- Urinary retention
- Capsule of an organ
- Acute prostatitis
- Acute pyelonephritis
- Pain w malignancy is late manifestation - advanced
Renal Pain
- Ipsilateral costovertebral angle (CVA)
- May radiate to umbilicus or referred to ipsilateral testicle or labium
- Constant in infection; Intermittent with obstruction
- Nausea/vomiting (N/V ) may result from reflex stimulation of celiac ganglion
- Position of patient is a clue
- Intraperitoneal pathology: patient lies motionless to avoid pain
- Renal disease: move about to find comfortable position
Uretal Pain:
- Usually acute and secondary to obstruction
- Distention ureter causes constant dull ache
- Spasms of ureter cause colic
- Site of obstruction may effect type of pain
- Upper obstruction -> pain to scrotum/labia
- Mid obstruction -> LQ and confused w AP (right) or diverticulitis (left)
- Lower -> uretal orifice inflammation -> s/s vesical irritability
© 2001 Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP
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Vesical Pain
- Acute urinary retention -> severe supra pubic area (SPA) pain
- Chronic -> painless despite large vesical distention
- Acute cystitis: referred to distal urethra and associated with micturition
Prostatic Pain:
- Associated with inflammation and located in perineum - prostatitis
- May radiate to lumbosacral spine, inguinal canals or lower extremities
- May result in irritative voiding complaints since location is near bladder neck
Penile Pain:
- Flaccid penis: usually caused by inflammation
- STDs
- Paraphimosis: retracted foreskin is trapped behind glans -> congestion
swelling
- Erect penis
- Peyronie's disease:
Fibrous plaque of tunica albuginea -> painful curvature of erect penis
- Priapism: prolonged painful erection necessitating immediate intervention
Testicular Pain

- Acute conditions:
- Pain in scrotum with radiation to ipsilateral groin
- Trauma, torsion, epididymo-orchitis
- Chronic pain:
- Epididymitis: if acute -> pain may persist for months following successful tx
- Varicocele or hydrocele: dull heaviness w/o radiation
HEMATURIA
- Sign of malignancy until proven otherwise
- Timing of blood is important clue to site
- Initial hematuria:
- Blood which clears during stream of urine
- Implies anterior (penile) urethral source
- Terminal hematuria: implies bladder neck or prostatic urethral source
- Total hematuria: bladder or upper tract source
- Associated symptoms important clue:
- Hematuria with renal colic: suggest stone
- Hematuria with severe dysuria
- Hemorrhagic cystitis if young women
- Neoplasm if older woman or in any male
- Less frequent causes: staghorn calculi, glomerulonephropathies, polycystic kidneys
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IRRITATIVE VOIDING SYMPTOMS:
Urgency: strong sudden desire to void
- Inflammatory conditions: cystitis
- Hyperreflexic neuropathic conditions - upper motor neuron lesions
:Dysuria painful urination
- Associated with inflammation
- Tip of penis in men, urethra in women
Frequency: increased number of voids during daytime
Nocturia: increased nocturnal frequency (normal freq: 5-6 x per day and 0-1 per night)
FREQUENCY:
- Increased urinary output
- DM, DI
- Excess fluid ingestion, diuretics (including caffeine and ETOH)
- Decreased functional bladder capacity
- Bladder outlet obstruction: increased residue urine volume
- Neurogenic bladder: spastic, reduced compliance
- Extrinsic compression: fibroids, radiation fibrosis, pelvic neoplasms
- Psychologic factors: anxiety
OBSTRUCTIVE VOIDING SYMPTOMS
- Hesitancy: delay in initiation of micturition
Results from Increased time required for bladder to attain pressure sufficient to
exceed obstructed urethra
- Decreased force of stream:
- Results from high resistance to emptying bladder
- Associated with decrease in caliber of stream
- Intermittency and postvoid dribbling:
- Interruption of urinary stream
- Involuntary release of terminal few drops of urine
- Most common causes: BPH, urethral stricture, neurogenic bladder
- Less common causes: : CA (prostate or urethral), foreign body
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INCONTINENCE: involuntary loss of urine
- Total incontinence: lose urine at all times and in all positions
- Stress incontinence:
- Urine loss associated with increased intra-abdominal pressure
- Coughing, sneezing, lifting, exercising
- Urge incontinence: uncontrolled loss of urine preceded by strong urge to void
- Overflow incontinence: results from chronic urinary retention
MISCELLANEOUS URINARY SYMPTOMS
Hematospermia: blood in the ejaculate
- Usually from inflammation of prostate or seminal vesicles.
- Blood in initial portion of ejaculate suggests prostate
- Blood in terminal portion of ejaculate suggests seminal vesicle
- Low risk for malignancy with an isolated event given a normal U/A and DRE
- Workup:
- U/A, DRE with prostate massage and microscopic evaluation of fluid
- Cystoscopy, transrectal U/S, prostate biopsy if U/A DRE abnormal
Pneumaturia: gas in urine
- Almost always secondary to fistula bladder - GI tract
- Common causes: diverticulitis, CA bladder-sigmoid colon, regional enteritis
Urethral discharge: most common s/s STD
- D/C with dysuria-itching suggests STD
- Bloody d/c suggests urethral CA
Cloudy Urine:
- Urinary tract infection (UTI)
- Alkaline pH common in absence of UTI - precipitation of phosphate crystal
- Chyluria: lymph in urine (rare)
- Fistula UT - lymphatic systems
- Filariasis, TB, retroperitoneal tumors
PHYSICAL EXAM
GENERAL:
- Pallor: anemia
- Cachexia: malignancy
- Gynecomastia: testicular CA
- HTN: renovascular disease or adrenal CA
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KIDNEY:
- Palpating kidneys
- Right kidney lower than left due to liver
- Right lower pole may be palpable in thin pts
- Left kidney not usually palpable unless enlarged
- Tap between hands to palpate on inspiration
- Systolic bruit of LUQ or RUQ in HTN
- Etiology: renal artery stenosis or arteriovenous malformation
- Pin-prick testing for hyperesthesia of overlying skin
- Distinguishes nerve root irritation and radiculitis versus renal origin

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BLADDER:
- Not palpable unless filled w 150 ml urine
- Percussion better than palpation: dullness (full bladder) vs tympany (air-filled bowel)
- Bimanual exam under anesthesia for bladder neoplasia
- Best means to assess vesical mobility and resectability
- Male: palpate between abdominal wall-rectum
- Female: palpate between abdominal wall-vagina
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PENIS
- Must retract foreskin to inspect meatus and glans
- Palpate shaft for abnormalities:
- dorsal shaft: Peyronie's disease
- ventral shaft: urethral tumors
COMMON ABNORMALITIES
- Phimosis: foreskin cannot be retracted
- Paraphimosis:
- Foreskin has been left behind the glans
- Resulting in painful engorgement and edema of glans
- Untreated may result in glandular ischemia
- Hypospadia:
- Congenital anomaly where meatus in located on
ventral aspect of penis
- Can be as low as scrotum, perineum
- Epispadia: congenital anomaly where meatus is located on
dorsal aspect of penis
- Peyronie’s disease: hardening of the corpus cavernosa -> pain, distortion/curvature of penis
- Abnormal discharge:
- Gonorrhea (GC): thick yellow urethral d/c
- Non-specific urethritis: clear or white d/c
SCROTUM AND ITS CONTENTS
- Scrotal mass is most common urology referral
- Determine if mass in testicle or related to epididymis or cord structures
- Normal testes 6 x 4 cm: rubbery
- Epididymis rests posterolateral to testis and varies in its degree of testicular
attachment.
- Masses within testes are usually malignant
- Masses within epididymis and spermatic cord usually benign
- Translumination is critical to any scrotal mass
- Distinguishes solid (do not transilluminate) and cystic lesions (transilluminate)
- Tumors of testes usually painless, firm, solid lesions within substance of testes
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COMMON TESTICULAR ABNORMALITIES
Acute Epididymitis: acute infectious process of epididymis
- Painful enlargement of epididymis
- Fever and irritative voiding common
- Advanced states -> spread to testes making distinction difficult on exam
- Entire scrotal contents painful
- Preh's sign: relief to supine patient by elevating scrotum above pubic symphysis
Hydrocele: collection of fluid between 2 layers of tunica vaginalis
- Dx via translumination
- 10% of testicular tumors have hydrocele
Variocele: engorgement of internal spermatic veins above testes
- Almost always on left side
- Left spermatic vein empties into left renal vein
- Right spermatic vein empties into inferior vena cava
- Diminish or decrease with supine position
- Sudden onset of right variocele suggests malignancy
Raises issue of retroperitoneal malignancy from obstruction
Spermatocele
to right spermatic vein
Testicular Torsion:
- Medical emergency
- 10-20 year old age group typical
- Acute onset of pain and swelling testicle
- Affected testicle may have "high lie" relative to the other
- Lack of voiding symptoms and age group may help to distinguish from epididymitis
Torsion of appendices of testes or epididymis
- May be indistinguishable from torsion of testis
- Affects similar age group as torsion of testes
- Occasionally small palpable lump on superior pole of testis or epididymitis discernible
- Blue dot sign: Small lump on superior pole may appear blue when skin pulled tautly.
© 2001 Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP
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RECTAL EXAMINATION IN THE MALE
- Performed with patient bent over table or knee-chest position
- Inspect for anal pathology (fissures, warts, carcinoma, hemorrhoids)
- Insert finger to estimate tone and bulbocavernous reflex
Anal and urinary sphincter common innervation
- Examine entire prostate: size and consistency - norm is 4x4 cm and 25 g
- Normal: consistency of a contracted thenar eminence w thumb opposed to little finger *
- BPH: rubbery with enlargement
- Prostatic CA (also with chronic inflammation): hard as with induration
- Examine rest of rectum to exclude primary rectal disease
* Another analogy is to compare normal prostate to the tip of the nose (which also simulates the median
sulcus, the boggy prostate to the lips and the cancerous prostate to the forehead)

PELVIC EXAMINATION IN FEMALE
- Inspect introits for atrophic changes, ulcers, d/c, warts
- Urethral meatus: inspect for caruncles and palpated for tumors or diverticula
- Bimanual exam: bladder, uterus, adnexa
© 2001 Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP
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URINALYSIS
Specimen Collection
- Male: clean-catch in separate aliquots
- First 5-10 ml: urethral
- Midstream: bladder and upper urinary tracts
- Next 2-3 ml urine after prostate massage reflects prostate status
Preferable to obtain prostrate secretions; urine useful if none obtained
- If suspect STD - swab urethra before clean catch urine
- Female: midstream specimen after cleansing labia
Dipstick of Urine
pH:
- No role in screen asymptomatic adults except for pregnant women
- Range 5.0-9.0
- Alkaline urine with UTI suggests urea-splitting organism
- P mirabilis is most common
- Klebsiella, pseudomonas, providencia species, staphylococcus
- Acid in pt with stones - calculi: uric acid or cystine stones
- Failure to acidify below 5.5 with metabolic acidosis: suggests renal tubular acidosis.
PROTEIN
- Bromphenol blue detects concentration > 10 mg/dl
- Measures albumin
- Not sensitive for lt chain immunoglobulins (Bence Jones)
- False positive if numerous leukocytes and epithelial cells
UROBILINOGEN
- From catabolism of conjugated bilirubin in gut by bacteria
- Most urobilinogen is cleared by liver
- Increased with hemolytic processes or hepatocellular disease
- Decreased
- Broad spectrum antibiotics (alter flora of gut)
- Complete biliary obstruction
BILIRUBIN
- Normally no bilirubin is detected
- Unconjugated bilirubin not filtered, 1% conjugated is filtered
- Elevated conjugated bilirubin -> higher urinary levels
- False negative with ascorbic acid; false positive with phenazopyridine
© 2001 Lois E. Brenneman, MSN, CS, ANP, FNP
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