Table Of ContentUrban governance and spatial planning for sustainable urban
development in Tamale, Ghana
By
Issahaka Fuseini
Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at
Stellenbosch University
Supervisor: Dr Jaco Kemp
March 2016
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DECLARATION
By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own,
original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction
and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not
previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.
March 2016
Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University
All rights reserved
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ABSTRACT
This study investigated urban governance and spatial planning practices for sustainable urban development in
Tamale, Ghana, regarding provision and access to urban infrastructure and basic services. This broad aim of
the study was divided into three objectives, namely to 1) review of the statutory provisions for the conduct of
urban governance and spatial planning in Ghana and Tamale, 2) assess the spatio-temporal growth dynamics
and provision of urban infrastructure and basic services in Tamale, and 3) to explore stakeholder engagement
in spatial planning in the city. Research questions that guided the study were: a) what is the extent of the
physical expansion of Tamale and how does urban governance respond to the growth dynamics regarding
infrastructure and service provision?, b) to what extent does the spatial growth patterns of the city reflect local
and national development aspirations, c) what national and local statutory frameworks guide the practice of
urban governance and spatial planning, d) what are the modes of stakeholder engagement in urban governance
and spatial planning and who are the stakeholders, and e) is the city’s urban governance inclusive and amenable
to decentralisation, entrepreneurialism and democratisation (DED) principles? The DED analytical framework
and collaborative planning theoretical perspective were adopted to analyse urban governance practices and
outcomes in Tamale. Four evaluative questions were addressed using the DED and collaborative planning
frameworks, namely how urban governance is lived in Tamale, whether urban governance leads to job creation,
and for whom, whether urban governance results in improved urban services and whether urban governance
empowers people at the grass roots and promotes accountable governance.
A mixed methods research design was employed in the study. This comprised of quantitative analysis of the
city’s spatial growth using remote sensing and geographic information systems techniques, and qualitative
investigation of urban governance processes and outcomes. The results show that the legislative provisions
guiding urban governance in Ghana have not been effective in promoting sustainable urban development
leading to the country transitioning towards spatial development frameworks (SDFs) as alternative approaches.
Also, both the city’s spatial and demographic growth has been phenomenal, but access to urban infrastructure
and services has lagged behind. Moreover, there was limited stakeholder engagement in urban governance and
that resulted in low accountability. In terms of the DED and collaborative planning frameworks, there were
generally no straightforward answers to the evaluative questions, except with respect to the question of
accountability, which was almost non-existent in the urban governance practices of Tamale. The study
concludes by lauding efforts to reform urban governance laws and initiatives to engender participatory and
partnership-based urban governance and service delivery in the city. It is recommended that these reforms
should be encouraged and operationalised within real decentralisation, entrepreneurialism and
democratisation. Comprehensive needs assessment, institutional and stakeholder capacity-building efforts, and
empathic stakeholder engagements will be crucial in this regard, especially if social justice, economic viability,
and environmental health and sustainability are considered in the management of the city’s urban growth.
Further research is recommended to provide detailed understanding of urban governance outcomes in Tamale,
such as the magnitude of job creation, distribution and sustainability.
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OPSOMMING
Hierdie studie ondersoek stedelike bestuur en ruimtelike beplannings praktyke vir volhoubare stedelike
ontwikkeling in Tamale, Ghana, in verband met voorsiening en toegang tot stedelike infrastruktuur en basiese
dienste. Hierdie breë doelwit van die studie is opgedeel in drie subdoelwitte, naamlik 1) om hersiening van die
statutêre voorsienings vir die gedrag van stedelike bestuur en ruimtelike beplanning in Ghana en Tamale te
doen, 2) die ruimtelike-tydelike groei dinamika en voorsienings van stedelike infrastruktuur en basiese dienste
in Tamale te assesseer, en 3) om die betrokkenheid van belanghebbendes in ruimtelike beplanning van die stad
te verken. Navorsingsvrae wat die studie gelei het is as volg: a) wat is die aard van fisiese uitbreiding van
Tamale, b) tot watter mate reflekteer die ruimtelike groeipatrone van die stad die plaaslike en nasionale
ontwikkelings-aspirasies, c) watter nasionale en plaaslike statutêre raamwerke begelei die stedelike bestuur en
ruimtelike beplanningspraktyke, d) wat is die modus van belanghebbende betrokkenheid in stedelike bestuur
en ruimtelike beplanning en wie is die belanghebbendes, en e) is die stad se stedelike bestuur insluitend en
ontvanklik tot desentralisasie, entrepreneurskap en demokratiserings (DED) beginsels? Die DED analitiese
raamwerk en gesamentlike beplanning teoretiese perspektief was aangeneem om stedelike bestuurspraktyke
en uitkomste in Tamale te analiseer. Vier evaluerende vrae is geadresseer deur middel van die DED en
gesamentlike beplanningsraamwerke, naamlik hoe stedelike bestuur uitgeleef word in Tamale, of stedelike
bestuur lei tot werkskepping en vir wie, of stedelike bestuur lei tot verbeterde stedelike dienste, en of stedelike
bestuur mense bemagtig op die voetsoolvlak en verantwoorbare bestuur bevorder.
‘n Gemengde-metode navorsingsontwerp is gebruik in die studie. Dit bestaan uit kwantitatiewe analiese van
die stad se ruimtelike groei met gebruik van afstandwaarneming en geografiese inligtingstelsels tegnieke, en
kwalitatiewe ondersoek van stedelike bestuursprosesse en uitkomste. Die resultate wys dat die wetgewende
bepalings wat stedelike bestuur in Ghana lei nie effektief was in die bevordering van volhoubare
stadsontwikkeling nie, en lei tot die land se oorgang na ruimtelike ontwikkelingsraamwerke (SDFs) as
alternatiewe benaderings. Beide die stad se ruimtelike en demografiese groei was ook fenomenaal, maar
toegang tot stedelike infrastruktuur en dienste is agterblewend. Verder was daar beperkte belanghebbende
betrokkenheid in stedelike bestuur wat gelei het tot lae aanspreeklikheid. In terme van die DED en
gesamentlike beplanningsraamwerke, was daar oor die algemeen geen eenvoudige antwoorde vir die
evaluerende vrae nie, behalwe die vrae in verband met van aanspreeklikheid wat amper nie bestaan in die
stedelike bestuurspraktyke van Tamale nie. Die studie sluit af deur erkenning te gee aan pogings wat
aangewend is vir die hervorming van stedelike bestuurswette en inisiatiewe om deelnemende en vennootskap-
gebasseerde stedelike bestuur en dienslewering in die stad te kweek. Dit word voorgestel dat hierdie
hervormings aangemoedig en operasioneel word binne werklike desentralisasie, entrepreneurskap en
demokratisering. Omvattende-behoeftes assessering, institusionele en belanghebbende kapasiteitsbou-
pogings, asook empatiese belanghebbende betrokkenheid sal deurslaggewend wees in hierdie opsig, veral
indien sosiale geregtigheid, ekonomiese vatbaarheid, en omgewingsgesondheid en volhoubaarheid in ag
geneem word in die bestuur van die stad se stedelike groei. Verdere navosing word voorgestel om ‘n
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gedetailleerde verstandhouding van stedelike bestuursuitkomste in Tamale van byvoorbeeld die grootte van
werkskepping, verspreiding en volhoubaarheid, te voorsien.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A journey through doctoral studies is often described as lonely and boring because of the personal commitment
and dedication required of the candidate! In reality, however, doctoral studies like any research endeavour
constitutes teamwork involving institutions and individuals from the conception through the execution of the
research. In this regard, Isaac Newton once remarked, “if I have seen further than others, it is by standing on
the shoulders of giants.” Therefore, I take this opportunity to acknowledge the support and affection I received
from numerous ‘giants’ while pursuing this study.
My first and foremost gratitude goes to my financial ‘engineers’ – the South African National Research
Foundation (NRF) and the African Doctoral Academy (ADA) at Stellenbosch University – for their financial
support towards this study. Further appreciation goes to the Stellenbosch University for its financial support
through the Postgraduate Merit Bursary programme.
I’m hugely indebted to my supervisor, Dr Jaco Kemp, for his unceasing support and direction that made the
timely completion of this study possible. Dr Kemp’s love for detail and academic propriety profoundly shaped
my approach to scholarship. I cannot forget his financial support to procure satellite image data for the study,
the regular over three-hour ‘learning’ and meeting sessions as well as his ever-present friendly and frank
demeanour during our meetings and interactions. I could not have hoped for a better supervisor! Thank you
Dr Kemp.
I also extend my gratitude to the staff of the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
(Stellenbosch University) for the logistical support such as working space, computer laboratory and software
and technical (IT) support. The various consultations – formal and informal – I had with individual staff
members of the Department were valuable to the execution of my study. Particular mention is made of
consultations with the following: Prof JH van der Merwe, Prof R Donaldson, Prof G Visser, Mr D Du Plessis
and Mrs Anele Horn. Prof Visser’s constructive critique has made a great impact in shaping the theoretical
discussion of the study. I equally appreciate a rather informal, ad hoc and often corridor-based consultations
and interactions with other Departmental staff members such as Mr Garth Stephenson, Mr Theo Pauw, Mr
Jascha Muller, Mr Johans van Wyk and Mr Attie Boshoff. Thank you all for you attention.
Members of staff of the Department of Geography and Resource Development (University of Ghana, Accra)
have also supported me immensely during the conception and execution of the study, for which I am grateful.
I thank Prof EA Gyasi and Prof JA Yaro for their mentorship and support of all kinds. Dr J Teye, Dr O Barima
and Dr E Attua are also acknowledged for their advice and support.
Regarding data support for the study, I acknowledge receipt of satellite image data from the European Space
Agency (ESA) under its Third Party Mission (TPM) free data access programme. Similarly, I extend my
heartfelt gratitude to my research participants and their institutions in Tamale and Accra, Ghana for their
cooperation. The research participants were drawn from the Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD),
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Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TaMA), Sagnarigu District Assembly (SDA), Survey Department (SD),
Lands Commission (LC), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Urban Roads (DUR),
Metropolitan Agriculture Development Unit (MADU) of the TaMA, Urban Agriculture Network (UrbANet),
Ghana Water Company Ltd (GWCL), Customary Land Secretariat (CLS) and assembly members. Special
appreciation is in order of Mr Zikiru Sule (former Director, TCPD at TaMA), Mr Ben Mensah (Deputy
Director, TCPD at TaMA), Mr Saaka Takura (Director, TCPD at SDA) and Mr Mohammed Alhassan
(Management Information System [MIS] Officer at TCPD Headquarters, Accra). My persistent visits to the
aforementioned persons made Mr Takura once ask “and what again?”, when I was merely passing by his office
on this occasion.
A ‘galaxy’ of friends, too numerous to mention, supported me throughout the study and therefore deserve a
special mention. I express my awesome indebtedness to Dr Alphonse Nindow and Mr Abdallah Ali-Nakyea
for sponsoring my first trip to Stellenbosch to commence this study. Words are not enough to express my
gratitude for their generous gesture. I heard the name ‘Stellenbosch University’ for the first time and the
scholarship opportunity to study in this great institution from Abu Razak, for which I say a big thank you.
Bismark Azabre, Haruna Abubakari, Seidu Abdul-Rahman, Hardi Shahadu, Iddrisu Mohammed Shariff,
Iddrisu Khalid, Abubakar Amadu, Alhassan Seidu, Abukari Abdul-Razak, Dr Latif Alhassan, Paul Wunniche
Mahama, James Busagre Zakaria and Lukman Yakubu all supported me in diverse ways. Ibrahim Yakubu
proofread my first draft at incredibly short notice! Thank you guys, and forgive me if I inadvertently omitted
any persons.
I also extend my appreciation to my colleagues in the Postgraduate Office for their company and insight
through our conversations and interactions. John Bosco Isunju and Sunday Adeyini are particularly thanked in
this respect.
My family has been rock solid behind me throughout this journey. I thank my wife, Azara, for her support,
patience and endurance as well as accepting a challenging role of a ‘single’ parent as she took care of our son,
Mbo, while I undertook this study in a ‘faraway land’. My mother, Fuseina, my aunty Salamatu, uncles Saaka,
Fuseini, Tahidu, Yakubu and Alhassan Sheini, my cousin Zakaria as well as my siblings Suhnun and Shahdaw
all deserve special thanks for their unending support and care. Thank you all for the love and affection you
have shown me through this journey.
Finally, I could achieve nothing, I could be nobody, and I can go nowhere from here without the guidance,
protection and benefaction of the Most Compassionate and Most Merciful Almighty God. Another milestone
has been reached in my life, and I seek Your guidance as I transition into a more challenging stage of my life
journey.
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DEDICATION
To my late dad, Adam Ibrahim, my son, Mbo, who joined the family in the course of this study, and to my
entire family for their love care
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CONTENTS
Declaration . ...................................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract …........................................................................................................................................................ iii
Opsomming . .................................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................................ vi
Dedication ….................................................................................................................................................. viii
Contents ….. ..................................................................................................................................................... ix
Tables …….. .................................................................................................................................................. xiii
Figures …… ................................................................................................................................................... xiv
Abbreviations and acronyms ........................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 Background to the study .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Research questions .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Research objectives ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Operational definition of concepts .................................................................................................. 6
1.5.1 Urban governance .................................................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 The DED framework ............................................................................................................................................8
1.5.3 Spatial planning or urban land-use planning ........................................................................................................9
1.5.4 Urban infrastructure and service delivery .......................................................................................................... 10
1.5.5 Collaborative planning ........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.5.6 Sustainable urban development or urbanisation .............................................................................................. 10
1.6 Organisation of the work ............................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2 Theoretical and analytical frames .................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Theorising spatial planning and urban governance in the Global South ....................................... 13
2.3 Contemporary issues of urbanisation ............................................................................................ 18
2.3.1 Urban growth in the developing world .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Increasing poverty and informality .................................................................................................................... 19
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2.3.3 Emergent land markets ....................................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.4 Cities and climate change .................................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Analytical framework .................................................................................................................... 24
2.4.1 The DED framework ......................................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.2 Evaluating urban governance using the DED framework .............................................................................. 30
2.5 Summary........................................................................................................................................ 31
Chapter 3 Study area and methodological overview ...................................................................................... 32
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Tamale in context and scope of the study ...................................................................................... 32
3.2.1 Tamale – location and origin .............................................................................................................................. 33
3.2.2 Physical conditions .............................................................................................................................................. 34
3.2.3 Socio-economic characteristics ......................................................................................................................... 35
3.3 Roadmap of the study .................................................................................................................... 42
3.3.1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................... 42
3.3.2 Methods and data sources ................................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.3 Analysis................................................................................................................................................................ 51
3.4 Summary........................................................................................................................................ 55
Chapter 4 A review of spatial planning in Ghana’s socio-economic development trajectory: a sustainable
development perspective ............................................................................................................... 56
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 56
4.2 Conceptualising sustainable development in urban governance ................................................... 59
4.3 Methodology.................................................................................................................................. 60
4.4 Spatial planning and development in Ghana ................................................................................. 62
4.4.1 Planning in pre-independence Ghana (the Gold Coast) .................................................................................. 62
4.4.2 Spatial planning in post-independence Ghana up to 1990 ............................................................................... 64
4.4.3 Planning in contemporary times, from 1991 ..................................................................................................... 66
4.5 New development to restructure planning and urban governance in Ghana ................................. 71
4.5.1 National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) .................................................................................................... 71
4.5.2 Land Use and Spatial Planning Bill (LUSPB) .................................................................................................. 74
4.6 Discussion and lessons learnt ........................................................................................................ 76
