Table Of ContentAGROECOLOGY
The Universal Equations
AGROECOLOGY
The Universal Equations
Paul A. Wojtkowski
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A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
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‘Now pees’ quod Nature ‘I comaunde here’
(‘Peace now, I command here’ said Nature)
Chaucer (1382) Parliament of Foules
Preface
It is commonly accepted that agriculture has existed for over 10,000 years.
For most of this period, humans learned how to produce food with and
without natures help. Agroecology was major factor, but went unrecognized.
This continued until the mid-1800s when science and the scientifi c
method came to the fore. This was a period when, through numerous
technological advances, there was a belief that mankind could control
natural forces and eventually dominate nature.
Agriculture was at a disadvantage. Ecology was in its early infancy,
lacking many of the key concepts. Statistics was a new science with little
grounding. Given these limitations and with an inability to make headway
against bio-complexity, early researchers sought simplifi cation.
What resulted was a focus on the monoculture. Problems were best
handled one-on-one. This favored chemicals. In time, genetics entered
picture and, combined with a chemical reliance, this resulted what might
be called the green revolution model.
The Green Revolution
The picture represented by the green revolution model is more than just
high-yielding crops preforming at their maximum. This is a system where
high yields are supported by large inputs of chemicals. Some are mildly
harmful, others more worrisome.
These are also narrowly focused systems. Risk, inputs, costs, and
environmental concerns are sidelined in the drive for yield and revenue-
based profi t maximization. For consumers, the enticement is food and fi ber,
readily available and cheaply purchased. The logical extension of extreme
simplifi cation is economies of scale and the factory farm. Unfortunately,
in this drive for simplifi cation, biodiversity and ecology are regarded as
obstacles, not as means.
In this very constrictive, and somewhat basis, interpretation of the
agricultural history, any deviation off this narrow track requires looking
viii Agroecology: The Universal Equations
at biodiversity. Once this step is taken, it becomes apparent that much
is missing. Roughly estimating, 90–95% of the agro-options and agro-
possibilities are mostly ignored within the narrow confi nes of the green
revolution model.
Alternative Agriculture
The agricultural mainstream, in continuing with the green revolution model,
is falling short on any number of concerns. There are many that seek other
options, other directions, and other methods. These are best if in-tune with
nature and the environment. The rise of organic agriculture, permiculture,
sustainable agriculture, and other departures from the agricultural norm
are, in essence, cries for help. These demonstrates need to coalesce around
some core alternative.
The Rise of Agroecology
Given what is happening and a growing chorus for something different, it is
inevitable that agroecology will dominate. Agroecology offers alternatives to
monocropping, agrochemicals, and the green revolution model. Moreover,
from a scientifi c perspective, comparison of the rich theoretical core of
ecology and agroecology to the narrow conceptional base of the green
revolution model shows that much is lacking.
Whether or not one is in agreement with the latter statement, there are
suppositions that can be drawn. As the agroecology expands, agriculture
should become a subset of agroecology. The more likely course is that,
as an academic discipline, agroecology will slowly supersede or absorb
agriculture.
Because agroecology is able to go beyond the one-chemical, one-answer
mindset, it is possible to embrace bio-complex, nature-friendly solutions.
This is also because agroecology, in league with ecology, has the theoretical
base to handle the various forms of biocomplexity.
In going into the bio-solutions, the emphasis in this text is not on
expanding the fi eld-level operational base, i.e., presenting and describing
more of the agroecological options and advances. The goal is to intensify
the theory that does exist and extend this to the furthest reaches.
Too Much Too Soon
For many, agroecology is a foreign creature. Ecologists, in stepping across
into agroecology, fi nd that their methods and results are now dictated by
Preface ix
economics. For those in conventional agriculture, forestry, and agroforestry,
the notion of being theory driven, rather that empirically derived, can be a
radical departure from the previous norm. Again, for those that dispute the
notion that agriculture is empirically driven, one only has to step beyond
the simplicity of the green revolution model.
There are other foreign elements. Agroecology is relatively new. Instead
of menu with few items, agroecology represents a large smorgasbord, tables
laden with concepts, ideas, principles, practices, and approaches. Until such
time as these are judged and thinned, practitioners must face an overly
complex array of basic underpinnings and cropping alternatives.
For the overwhelmed practitioner, science and theory are not the
only course. There are evolving guidelines that help formulate or manage
classes of agroecosystems. Throughout this text, these are presented as an
intermediate step between practice and theory.
Presented in this text is a vision on how those parts that constitute
agroecology fi t together. Some will accept, other may reject this continuum.
Hopefully, other ideas will follow and a lively debate will ensue (in
as far as this is possible in agroecology). It is better if agroecology does not
become defi ned by a belief or philosophy. Instead, agroecology, at its apex,
should quantitatively express what nature contributes.
Uncommon Agroecosystems
Mentioned throughout this text are various seemingly alien agrosystems.
For those vested in mono-cropping, many may seem beyond the pale. The
many photos ground the book. Instead of pure abstraction and pure theory,
the reality is that the agroecosystems mentioned exist. Admittedly, some
are uncommon, of specialized use, and/or are only found in far regions.
Vocabulary
In a world that has grown accustomed to the terminology of conventional
agriculture, there are diffi culties in modifying the language to address an
expanded, more inclusive agroecology. In this text, the words ‘farmer’ and
‘landuser’ are synonymous. This inference is more with the word ‘landuser’
as foresters and agroforesters are also land-use decision makers and,
therefore, ‘farmers’ of the land. In carrying this further, one might employ
the expression ‘applied or land-use agroecologist’.
Likewise with the term ‘farm’. Agriculture, as well as treecrop and tree
plantations, are land-use activities that fall squarely under an agroecology
heading. All are farms in the broad sense. Pushing the language, there is
x Agroecology: The Universal Equations
the term ‘agroecologically-productive entity’. Rather than deploying a
new phrase, the term ‘farm’, in its broadest sense, is employed in this text.
In apex agroecology, agriculture can be regarded as a specifi c subset
within agroecology. What is happening is that, as words, agriculture and
agroecology will be synonymous. Until this occurs, the narrower, non-
agroecological defi nition of agriculture applies within this text.
For clarity, the word ‘agronomy’, i.e., the science of crop production
also, the management of farm lands (again broadly defi ned) does not carry
a negative connotation, i.e., as with agro-chemical usage. Also, agriculture
generally applies to land use without the forestry and agroforestry
inclusions. Being broader and connotation free, agronomy is often utilized
in place of agriculture.
In a farm situation, economics are not just fi nancial goals. There
are a range of objectives. This include the risk profi le and the economic
orientation. Economic goals can even include an expected environmental
outcome. Profi t means the difference between revenues and costs.
For lack of a better term, agrotechnology refers to set agroecosystems
with specifi c ecological dynamics, set assemblages of species, and with
certain economic expectations. Agrosystems have a broader meaning,
agrotechnologies are more precise.
It would be nice if the agrotechnologies were set-in-place systems
lacking in variation. This is not the case. These can be modifi ed for specifi c
purpose. This is accomplished by way of the management options and
vectors. The options are minor changes that affect, in lessor ways, the
economic outcome (not only in profi tability, but through the other system
objectives).
The stronger term ‘vector’ implies the capacity to change, not only
the economic objectives, but the use situation. Further complicating
any outcome, a major change in economic direction can be the result of
seemingly minor adjustment in an input or how the system is managed.
Back Topics
Agroecology and agroecological economics are broad topics not lacking in
variety and nuances. Not all are covered here, nor is there intent to do so.
This text looks at the more common threads and takes these to
their end points. If one wants to study a fuller range of concepts, ideas,
principles, practices, and approaches, those that predate this text, the book
Agroecological Economics, Sustainability and Biodiversity (2008) is suggested.
This is by this same author.
