Table Of ContentUNESCO SCIENCE REPORT 2005
2005
UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT
UNESCO Publishing
The designations employed and the presentation of the material
throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.
The ideas and opinions expressed in this book are those of the
individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of
UNESCO.
Editor-in-Chief: Mustafa El Tayeb
Editor: Susan Schneegans
Thanks go to Michiko Tanaka, David McDonald and Eric Frogé
for their professional advice.
Published in 2005 by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
7 place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France
ISBN 92–3–103967–9
www.unesco.org/publishing
© UNESCO 2005
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Typeset by Curran Publishing Services, Norwich, UK
Printed by Darantiere, 21809 Quetigny
Printed in France
Contents
Foreword ix 6 Basic research funding in the USA, 2000 34
7 Bachelor’s degrees earned in selected science
and engineering fields in the USA, 1975–98 35
Introduction 1
8 National Science Foundation investment model,
Peter Tindemans USA 39
9 UStrade balance of royalties and fees, 1987–99 41
TABLES
1 Key indicators on world GDP, population and
Latin America and the Spanish-
GERD, 2002 4
2 World researchers, 2002 6 speaking Caribbean 45
3 Patents granted at USPTO, 1991 and 2001 8
Ana María Cetto and Hebe Vessuri
4 Regional origins of patents at the EPO,
USPTO and JPO, 2000 8 TABLES
5 World shares of scientific publications, 1991 1 Contextual indicators for Latin America and
and 2001 9 the Caribbean, 2000 47
6 World shares of scientific publications by field, 2 S&T indicators for Latin America and the
1991 and 2001 10 Caribbean, 2000 48
3 Latin America’s share of world GERD, GDP
7 International trade in high-tech products, 2002 12
and population, 2001 49
FIGURES 4 Publications in databases, Latin America
1 World shares of GERD, 2002 5 and the Caribbean, 2000 50
2 World shares of scientific publications for 5 International collaboration, within and
selected countries, 2001 9 beyond LAC, 1999–2002 53
3 World shares of scientific publications by 6 IDB funding of S&T in Latin America 73
continent, 2001 11
FIGURES
4 World high-tech imports and exports by
1 Latin America’s world share of scientific
continent, 2002 16
publications, 2001 47
5 Trend in innovation in the European Union (25),
2 Regional distribution of publications by
2000–03 21 discipline, 2001 49
3 Latin America‘s world share of scientific
United States of America 25 publications, 2001 50
4 International co-publications involving Latin
J. Thomas Ratchford and
American authors, 2001 52
William A. Blanpied
TABLES The CARICOM countries 77
1 The six leading Federal Government agencies in
Ishenkumba A. Kahwa and
the USA, 2003 28
Harold Ramkissoon
2 Trends in total funds for industrial R&D in the
USA, 1953–2001 29 TABLES
3 Funds for industrial R&D performance in the 1 Key indicators for the CARICOMcountries,
USA, by industry, 2000 and 2001 31 2001–03 78
2 University enrolment in the Caribbean,
FIGURES
2000 79
1 GERD in theUSA by source of funds,
1953–2000 26 FIGURES
2 GERD in theUSAby source of funds, 2002 26 1 Trends in S&T publications of the University
3 Federal R&Dbudget in theUSA by function, of the West Indies, 1967–99 80
2003 26
4 Federal support for R&D in the USA by
performing sector, 1953–2000 27
5 Shares of national US expenditures on R&D, by
source of funds, 1953–2000 30
UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005 v
CONTENTS
The European Union 87 inhabitants in countries of South-East Europe,
1990 and 2000 111
Laurence Esterle
9 Number of articles published by South-East
European countries, 1991–2004 112
TABLES
10 Impact of scientific research in South-East
1 Population, GERD and GDP in the EU, 2001 87
2 GERD/GDP ratio in the EU, 2001, and change, Europe, 1997–2001 112
1996–2001 87 11 Bulgaria’s high-tech trade, 2000 118
3 GERD in the EU and the USA, 1996 and 12 Albania’s R&D programmes, 1998–2001 125
2001 90 13 Tertiary graduates and PhDs in Turkey, 2001 129
4 BERD in the EU and USA by volume and 14 Turkey’s high-tech trade, 2001 130
source of funds, 2001 90
FIGURES
5 BERD in the EU and USA by economic sector, 1 Female science and engineering graduates in
2001 91 South-East Europe, 2001 106
6 Share of EU25 countries in world scientific 2 Researchers in FYR Macedonia, 1998 and
publications, 1996 and 2001 94 2002 109
7 Share of EU25 countries in world scientific 3 Patents granted in South-East Europe, 2004 113
publications, 2001 95 4 Institutional structure for S&T policy making in
8 Share of EU25 countries in European patents, Bulgaria 114
1996 and 2001 96 5 Government contribution to GERD in Bulgaria,
9 Students and researchers in EU25 countries, 1990–2002 115
2001 97 6 Researchers (FTE) in Bulgaria,
1994–2002 116
FIGURES
1 Scientific publications in the EU and USA, 7 Age pyramid of Bulgarian researchers, 1995
1993–2001 88 and 2000 117
2 Scientific publications and citations in the EU 8 Institutional structure for S&T policy making in
and USA, 1996 and 2001 89 Romania 119
3 Patent applications filed by EU and USA in EU 9 GERD in South-East Europe by source of
and USA, 1996 and 2001 92 funds, 2001 120
4 Share of European patents, EU15 and USA, 10 R&D in Romania by sector of performance,
1990–2001 93 1996 and 2002 121
5 GERD/GDP ratio in EU25, 2001, and change, 11 Structure of R&D personnel in Romania,
1996–2001 93 2002 122
12 Share of Romanian women in R&D, 1996
and 2001 122
South-East Europe 103
13 Institutional structure for S&T policy making
Georgi Angelov, Kostadinka Simeonova and in Albania 123
Ivo Slaus 14 University enrolment in Albania, 1994–2001 125
15 Institutional structure for S&T policy making
TABLES
in Turkey 126
1 Economic indicators for South-East Europe,
16 R&D institutions in Turkey 127
2002/03 104
17 Government expenditure on R&D in Turkey,
2 Social indicators for South-East Europe 105
2000 128
3 R&D effort in South-East Europe, 2000 107
18 Higher education expenditure on R&D in
4 Age structure of researchers in Croatia, 1991
and 2001 108 Turkey, 2000 128
5 R&D institutions, personnel and projects in 19 R&D in Turkey by sector of performance,
Serbia and Montenegro, 2001 110 2000 128
6 Number of researchers in Serbia, 2001 110 20 Researchers and R&D personnel in Turkey,
7 Share of scientific literature of selected 2000 129
countries in CEE zone, 1999 111 20 Publications by Turkish scientists, 1977–2002 130
8 Biomedical publications per 100000 21 Turkey’s patent applications to the EPO, 2001 130
vi UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005
CONTENTS
The Russian Federation 139 5 Distribution of FTE researchers in ESCWA
Arab states, 1996–98 168
Victor Sadovnichy
6 R&D units in the Arab region, 1996 170
Boris Kozlov 7 Average expenditure on education in the
Arab region, 1996–2001 171
TABLES
8 Student enrolment in higher education in the
1 Contribution to GDP of various sectors in the
Arab region, 2000 171
Russian Federation, 1998 149
2 Personnel in science and science management FIGURES
in the Russian Federation, 1990, 1995 and 2001 152 1 GERD in the Arab region as a world share,
3 Trends in higher education in the Russian 2000 162
Federation, 1995 and 2001 152 2 GERD/GDP ratio in the Arab region as a
4 Enrolment in technical and technological world share, 2000 164
specialties in the Russian Federation, 3 GERD per capita in the Arab region, 2000 164
1990–2001 153 4 Personal computers per 1000 population in
5 Training of highly qualified S&T personnel, the Arab region, 2001 165
1995–2003 153
5 Internet penetration in the Arab region, 2003 165
6 Patenting and licensing in the Russian
6 Value of contracts involving transfer in ICT,
Federation, 1995–2001 154
selected Arab states and territories, 1992–98 166
7 Claims for patents and issued patents in the
7 Total value of consultancy contracts in
Russian Federation, 1993–2003 155 selected Arab states, 1992–98 166
FIGURES 8 Researchers per million inhabitants in the
1 S&T capability in the Russian Federation, Arab region, 2000 167
1991–2001 143 9 GERD per researcher in the Arab region, 2000 167
2 GERD in the Russian Federation, 1990–2003 143 10 GERD per FTE researcher in selected Arab
3 Personnel working in R&D in the Russian states, 1996 168
Federation, 1990–2003 147 11 Researchers in the Arab region, 1996 169
4 Organizations implementing R&D in the 12 Number of R&D units in selected parts of
Russian Federation, 1998 148 the Arab region, 1999 170
5 GDP per head of working population in the
Russian Federation, 1990 and 1998 149
Africa 177
6 GDP in the Russian Federation, 1997–2003 150
7 GERD in G8 countries, 2001 151 Jacques Gaillard, Mohamed Hassan and
8 Average age of personnel in science and Roland Waast in collaboration with
industry in the Russian Federation, 1998 and Daniel Schaffer
2000 151
9 Personnel in science and science TABLES
management in the Russian Federation, 2000 151 1 Results of the IRDsurvey on researchers in
10 World rating of Russian Federation in economic Africa, 1999 182
development and innovation, 2002 156 2 Scientific articles published in Africa,1998 183
3 Scientific production in Africa, 1991–97 184
The Arab States 159 4 Key education indicators for Africa, 1990
and 2000 188
Adnan Badran
5 Patent applications filed by and granted to
African countries, 1999 190
TABLES
1 GDP per capita in the Arab region, 1995 and FIGURES
2002 160 1 Adequacy of scientists’ salaries in Africa,
2 Patents registered at the USPTOoriginating 1999 180
from Arab states, 1995–99 162 2 Sources of research funds in Africa, 1999 180
3 Military expenditure in selected Arab states, 3 GERD in Africa, 2002 or closest year 187
2001 163 4 Sub-Saharan Internet users per 1000
4 The digital divide in selected Arab states, 2002 166 population, 2002 194
UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005 vii
CONTENTS
Japan 203 South Asia 241
Yoshiko Okubo and Shinichi Kobayashi V. V. Krishna and Usha Krishna
TABLES TABLES
1 Breakdown of R&D in Japan and 1 Trends in economic activity in South Asia,
selected countries 215 1980s–2002 243
2 Japanese researchers relative to population 2 Scientists and engineers in South Asia,
and labour force, 1998–2002 217 2000–04 244
3 The top 20 S&T universities in Asia, 2000 251
FIGURES
4 Centres of excellence in Pakistan, 2004 253
1 Researchers and R&D expenditure in
5 GERD in Pakistan by field, 1998 and 2001 255
Japanese SMEs, 1990/91 and 2002/03 212
6 Enrolment of postgraduate university students
2 GERD/GDP ratio in Japan, 1981–2002 214
in Sri Lanka, 1999-2003 256
3 Numbers of researchers in Japan, 1981–2002 216
7 Leading public R&D institutions in Sri Lanka,
4 Female researchers in Japan, 1989 and 2003 216
2004 256
5 Scientific publications in Japan as a world
8 Leading public R&D institutions in
share, 1981–2002 217
Bangladesh, 2003 257
6 Profile of Japanese science and engineering,
9 Iranian publications cited in SCI, 1978–2000 259
1982–2002 218
7 Scientific profiles of Japan, the USA and the FIGURES
EU, 2002 219 1 GERD, military and education expenditure in
8 Citations of Japanese scientific papers as a South Asia, 2000–04 242
world share, 1981–2002 220 2 Human resources in S&T in India, 1991 and
9 US-granted patents by nationality of inventor, 2000 245
1980–2002 220 3 Research institutions and universities in India,
1990 and 2002 246
East and South-East Asia 225 4 Indian scientific output in terms of
publications, 1990–2004 246
Yu Wing-Yin 5 India’s IT industry and market, 1997–2003 248
6 Universities and degree-awarding institutes in
FIGURES
Pakistan, 2004 254
1 GERD/GDP ratio in East and South-East Asia,
7 Human resources in S&T in Pakistan, 2004 254
2001 225
8 International co-publications involving Sri
2 Computers in use in East and South-East Asia,
Lankan authors, 2000 256
2002 226
9 Scientific publications in Iran, 1995–99 259
3 Internet users in East and South-East Asia, 2002 226
10 Women in higher education and R&D
4 Patent productivity in East and South-East Asia,
institutes in South Asia, late 1990s 266
2000 227
5 High-tech exports in East and South-East Asia,
2001 228
6 Higher education achievement in East and
South-East Asia, 2001 229
7 Science and engineering education in East
and South-East Asia, 1999 229
viii UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005
Foreword
TheUNESCO Science Report 2005takes us on a world tour. industry has come to dominate the funding of research and
Through the eyes of an international team of experts, it development (R&D) in many countries but that still more is
analyses the current state of science around the globe. expected of it. However, Tindemans warns that it will not be
What new trends have emerged since the previous report companies that fund the greatest proportion of basic research
was published in 1998? What events have helped to in academic institutions in the years to come, despite the fact
reshape the scientific enterprise? For example, what has that universities play an increasingly important role in the
been the impact on science of the Stability Pact for South- innovation system. We find out why in the present report.
East Europe adopted in 1999, the New Partnership for We shall also see that Asia’s role on the international scene
Africa's Development (NEPAD) launched by the African is growing rapidly, driven largely by China’s dynamism. This
Union in 2001, and the enlargement of the European trend is challenging the dominance of the triad comprising
Union from 15 to 25 Member States in 2004? What Japan, the USA and the European Union. Asia has now over-
distinguishes the scientific profiles of different countries and taken Europe in terms of world share of expenditure on R&D,
regions? In what ways are relations between governments, for instance. However, with hundreds of millions of Asian chil-
the private sector and ‘knowledge institutions’ (universities dren still living in poverty, the benefits of R&D are still not
and research bodies) changing, and with what implications reaching large segments of the population who are deprived
for scientific development? of such ‘ basics’ as good nutrition, access to safe water, sani-
The World Conference on Science has come and gone tation and shelter. Let us not forget that one of the key recom-
but its legacy remains. Organized in 1999 by UNESCO mendations of the World Conference on Science was for
and the International Council for Science (ICSU), the R&D to target social needs and development-related
World Conference on Science made numerous recom- problem-solving .
mendations. How have these translated into national Elsewhere, countries less well-known for their scientific
science policies? For instance, are governments’ policy endeavour, such as Turkey, are emerging on the
decisions acknowledging that the returns and applications international scene. Science may not yet be a global
derived from basic research irrigate the entire research enterprise but the circle of players is definitely widening.
system and that basic research therefore requires International cooperation is not only helping countries to
sustained public support? ‘catch up’ but is also becoming indispensable to the very
In his introduction, Peter Tindemans summarizes the key exercise of science. We live in exciting times.
themes explored throughout the report. The desire to build I trust that the information, data and informed analysis
knowledge societies has become an overriding goal of contained in these pages will prove to be invaluable
governments the world over, he notes. Human resources are reference material for public and private sector decision-
naturally a key component of this effort. At the same time, makers, scientists, students, journalists and all those
governments, industry and other actors in the scientific enter- interested in the unfolding story of science. If these pages
prise are coming to realize ‘that building up human resources provoke reflection and policy debate, the UNESCO Science
can be accompanied by large-scale problems’, not least of Reportwill have served its purpose.
which is the phenomenon of brain drain, be it internal or
external. One of the most effective bulwarks against brain
drain is a strong university system, but which countries can
boast of a strong university system today?
If the ‘knowledge society’ is one key concept in the pres- Koïchiro Matsuura
ent report, a second is ‘innovation’. We shall see that private Director-General of UNESCO
UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005 ix
Introduction
Producing knowledge and benefiting from it:
the new rules of the game
PETER TINDEMANS
SETTING THE SCENE research institutes. We shall thus reflect in this introduc-
There is little doubt that the metaphor most widely used tory chapter on the role of the private sector and on vari-
in the present UNESCO Science Reportis that of a know- ous corollaries, such as the need for a strong interaction
ledge economy or, as we should say, knowledge society. with knowledge institutions and public authorities (the
But is it more than a metaphor? Yes, indeed. This intro- Triple Helix) but also a rethinking of the rules of the game
ductory chapter will be highlighting some important such as in the area of patents. Classical sector-based
elements of this new mindset about science and industrial policies will most likely be more difficult to
technology (S&T). implement. The scientific profiles of the USA, Europe and
Most of the chapters in the present report go beyond Japan can be read as both an indication of the past and a
updating information on the recent efforts of regions to look into the future.
develop research and development (R&D). The chapters The various chapters in the UNESCO Science Report
also provide an overview of S&T policies covering a demonstrate that the institutional framework for S&T is
longer period, against the backdrop of what is now going through a period of important adaptation, a fourth
perceived as being foremost on the minds of govern- theme for this introduction, which will focus on the
ments, enterprises, research bodies and universities: how academic sector. Venerable as they are, universities in
to develop a knowledge society. most places are nevertheless going to need to reposition
If we take it for granted that there is real substance to themselves to meet the expectations of society, industry
the concept of knowledge societies, there is all the more and their own students. Autonomy and accountability
reason for governments, industry and other actors to take will be the guiding concepts for rethinking their role. This
their role in this global movement very seriously. Is this represents a key task for governments, not least because
conclusion borne out by the regional reports that follow a strong university system nestled in the midst of a soci-
the present chapter? The answer is that many of these ety – one which is equipped to embrace entrepreneur-
actors are trying, a few are enjoying the first signs of ship, open interaction and communication – is vital to
success and all are coming to realize that building up countering one of the most serious of problems in a
human resources can be accompanied by large-scale globalizing world: brain drain.
problems. This trend will also be addressed in the Of course, many more themes emerge from the various
following pages. chapters that follow. Space constraints preclude covering
There is another catchword that has gained currency, such issues as the life sciences revolution or sustainability,
to the point of even replacing S&T at times, and that is or what is perhaps the greatest challenge of all, namely
the word ‘innovation’. Employed by economists since whether societies and individuals will be able to find fitting
Schumpeter,1it has become the staple food of politicians, responses to the many deep ethical issues raised by S&T, in
industrialists and university managers over the past a world that is shrinking through globalization – a
decade. Many policies on S&T are being restyled into phenomenon that, by the same token, is laying bare widely
N
innovation policies. Moreover, the predominance of the differing traditions, points of view and priorities.
O
private sector in countries that have succeeded in devel- TI
C
oping and applying S&T suggests that there is a need to HOW DIFFERENT IS A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY U
D
rethink the roles of governments, universities and FROM PREVIOUS SOCIETIES?
O
It is now customary to affirm that knowledge, education, R
T
N
science, technology and innovation have become the
I
1. Austrian economist who lived from 1883 to 1950.
UNESCO Science Report 2005 - ISBN 92-3-103967-9 - © UNESCO 2005 1
