Table Of ContentU
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London
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London
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U
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London
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First published in 2011
The History Press
The Mill, Brimscombe Port
Stroud, Gloucestershire, gl5 2qg
www.thehistorypress.co.uk
This ebook edition first published in 2013
All rights reserved
© Simon Webb, 2011, 2013
The right of Simon Webb to be identified as the Author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with the Copyrights, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
This ebook is copyright material and must not be copied,
reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly
performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted
in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and
conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by
applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this
text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights,
and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.
epub isbn 978 0 7524 9853 9
Original typesetting by The History Press
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Contents
1 Setting the Scene 7
2 Rivers and Hills: the Origin of a Ritual Landscape 16
3 The Religious View in Ancient Britain 31
4 A Tale of Two Cities 53
5 Gods and Goddesses 63
6 Severed Heads and the Cult of the Dead 79
7 Cultural Diffusion and the Preservation of Myth 96
8 Wells, Mazes and Maypoles 107
9 On the Fringe: Some Outlandish Ideas about Prehistoric London 122
10 Walking the Ritual Landscape 132
11 Conclusion 151
Bibliography 153
Plates 155
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1 The principal London sites mentioned
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1
Setting the Scene
It is a curious fact that while any educated person in this country is likely to
be familiar with the ancient and mythological history of the Romans, Greeks
and Jews, the legends and early history of his own nation will probably be com-
pletely unknown. Other cultures might have gods, heroes, kings and cities dating
back a thousand years before Christ; we in this country have nothing more than
vague images of cavemen and Druids. For most of us, British history really begins
with Julius Caesar’s landing in 55 bc. Even our capital city was supposedly estab-
lished by the Romans, conventional wisdom holding that the area covered by
modern-day London was more or less deserted marshland until the foundation
of Londinium in about ad 45. A book published 30 years ago describes London
before the Roman invasion like this: ‘The Thames, much wider than it is today,
flowed through an extensive and unhealthy marsh in which the only dry land
was a few hillocks of gravel. The inhabitants of this forbidding swamp were a few
tribesmen, water birds, fish and mosquitoes.’
Recent archaeological discoveries in the Greater London area have cast doubt
upon this traditional image of prehistoric London. In 1993, for example, the
remains of a wooden bridge or pier were found on the shore of the Thames at
Vauxhall in central London. The timbers were dated to 1500 bc. The obvious
question is who was building a bridge across the River Thames 3500 years ago
and why were they doing so if nobody lived there except for water birds, fish and
mosquitoes? More recently a far more ancient structure than this has been dis-
covered, also on the Thames foreshore near Vauxhall Bridge: a group of wooden
posts the size of telegraph poles, proved by carbon dating to have been erected
over 6500 years ago.
Near Heathrow airport in West London, something even more surprising has
been unearthed: an immense cursus or ceremonial causeway, 2½ miles long. This
raised roadway was 6ft high, 60ft wide and has deep ditches on either side; it is
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8 Unearthing London
roughly the size of a dual carriageway. Its construction would have been an enor-
mous undertaking for a primitive society and it was built 5000 years ago. There
may not have been a town or city where London stands today, but there were
certainly enough people living nearby thousands of years before the Romans
landed to carry out major civil engineering projects such as bridge building and
the construction of raised roadways.
The evidence now emerging suggests that London before the coming of the
Romans consisted primarily of a ritual landscape. What is a ritual landscape? This
expression, coined by British archaeologists in the late 1970s, refers to a large
tract of land with few inhabitants but containing many sacred structures such
as mounds, barrows, megaliths, shrines and cursuses scattered across it. Salisbury
Plain is a perfect example of a ritual landscape. The land there has been moulded
and shaped into a complex arrangement of tombs and monuments which are
still visible thousands of years later. This is such a strange concept today that
it is worth pausing for a moment to think a little about the idea of a ritual or
religious landscape.
In the modern world, with few exceptions, the overall landscape is wholly sec-
ular. Religious structures and areas tend to be small and self-contained. Churches,
mosques, synagogues and graveyards are embedded within an irreligious back-
ground of streets, houses, shops, farms, factories, offices and parks. We have to
make a special effort to hunt out our religious buildings. There is also a strict
demarcation between the living and dead, with special patches of land called
cemeteries or graveyards being allocated for the dead. These areas of the dead are
almost invariably surrounded with fences or walls, both as physical barriers and
as symbolic borders which emphasise the proper separation of the living and the
dead. The situation in Britain before the coming of the Romans was often pre-
cisely the opposite. It was the landscape itself which was the religious backdrop.
Human settlements were placed within this area and shared the land with the
dead who were, in many cases, accorded greater respect than the living. In fact, the
living and dead often coexisted amicably side by side. Sometimes corpses would
be buried beneath or close to huts. Excavations have also revealed burial mounds
which were raised over the remains of huts. In other words, a house containing a
living neighbour would be replaced on his death with an earthen mound cover-
ing both his dead body and former home. Presumably, those living nearby would
simply have accepted this, to us, bizarre and unwholesome arrangement! The
massive causeway described above was quite possibly intended for the exclusive
use of the spirits of the dead. The dead were housed in huge barrows and mounds,
many of which are still impressive structures 3000 or 4000 years later. The living
had to make do with poky, wattle and daub huts.
The idea that the Greater London area could have been just such a landscape
is exciting for a number of reasons. First, a prehistoric cult centre where London
now stands would tie in with many ancient British legends which have tradi-
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Setting the Scene 9
tionally been dismissed by modern historians. The stories recounted by medieval
chroniclers such as Geoffrey of Monmouth take on a new significance once we
concede that London before the Roman conquest really did contain religious
structures. For example, Geoffrey tells of temples in London before the Roman
city was established. If rather than some classical stone building along the lines of
the Parthenon, we interpret the word ‘temple’ loosely to mean a religious sanc-
tuary or enclosure of some kind, then this story may well be true. Allowing for
exaggeration, other tales of this kind might also have an element of truth in them.
That the area occupied by the present-day city might have been a cult centre is
also intriguing because it means that we may be able to explore this ritual land-
scape and find traces of its existence. A number of barrows, wells and sacred places
are still visible in central London, if one knows where to look, including an entire
Bronze Age cemetery.
Another reason that the notion of London as ritual landscape is interesting
is that it may shed light upon some of the most ancient folklore known to us.
Evidence might be found for the worship of the horned god Cernunnos and his
earlier avatars, as well as for the cult of the severed head and other, more obscure,
practices. This also makes the early history of London worth studying for any-
body with an interest in ancient mythology.
This book explores the thesis that London was an important place for those
living in this country for at least 4500 years before the Romans built their city of
Londinium. Archaeologists frequently have to travel to remote locations to verify
their hypotheses. We are more fortunate; the city whose prehistoric and cultural
origins we shall be considering is accessible and easy to visit. It will not always be
possible to approach our investigation directly for two reasons. First, the society
which existed before the Roman invasion was a pre-literate one. They left no
written records and we are obliged to deduce their beliefs obliquely, by examin-
ing archaeological remains and the accounts of classical authors such as Julius
Caesar. The pitfalls are probably at once obvious to readers. We may well misin-
terpret what we see and what a conquering army has to say of the primitive tribes
which it feels obliged to subdue is hardly likely to be impartial. Often, we shall
find ourselves viewing British history from the distorted perspective of those
who thought it necessary to destroy or at the least irrevocably alter the customs
which they found in this country. Archaeological finds are also likely to be seen
from a distorted perspective; that of a largely irreligious society which places little
value upon the numinous and divine.
The second difficulty to face us is that most of London is now buried beneath
millions of tons of concrete, steel, stone, brick and tarmac. Traces are discernible of
the ritual landscape which once covered the Thames valley in this area, but they
are few and far between. We shall sometimes need to look at sites on the outskirts
of the city, some of them 10 or 12 miles from central London. There is no cause
to think that the temples and monumental prehistoric structures which are to be
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