Table Of ContentUnderstanding the transformative potential of
international education for Vietnamese overseas graduates
and their communities
Lien Thi Pham
Thesis
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Sociology
Macquarie University
May 2016
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Current discourses of international education ..................................................................... 4
1.3 Contending viewpoints of international education .............................................................. 7
1.4 Overview of the research ................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Key arguments of the research .......................................................................................... 18
1.6 Significance of the research ............................................................................................... 22
1.7 Structure of the thesis ........................................................................................................ 24
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN ..................... 26
2 The Sen-Bourdieu theoretical framework: Conceptualising normative agency ....... 26
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 26
2.2 Theoretical foundations and key features of the agency-focused Capability Approach
(CA) ................................................................................................................................... 27
2.3 Operationalising the CA .................................................................................................... 33
2.4 Operationalising the agency-focused CA using Bourdieu’s theory of practice and
reflexive sociology ............................................................................................................ 36
2.5 Challenges and limitations of the Sen-Bourdieu conceptual framework .......................... 48
2.6 Conclusion: Summarising key concepts of the Sen-Bourdieu framework ........................ 52
3 The methodological design: From theory to praxis of reflexive sociology ................. 56
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 56
3.2 Case study and mixed method approach ........................................................................... 57
3.3 Phase 1: Surveys ................................................................................................................ 64
3.4 Phase 2: Interviews ............................................................................................................ 73
3.5 Reflection on the research process .................................................................................... 82
3.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 87
THE CASE STUDY OF VIET NAM AND VIETNAMESE OVERSEAS-EDUCATED
RETURNEES ................................................................................................................... 89
4 Encountering the Vietnamese habitus ........................................................................... 89
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 89
4.2 Personalism: the virtues of personal relations ................................................................... 91
4.3 Individualism: Self and society relations .......................................................................... 95
4.4 Nationalism and democratic-centralism: State-society relations ...................................... 97
4.5 Economic pragmatism: from the Mekong Delta economy to economic reform of Doi Moi
......................................................................................................................................... 102
4.6 Educational values and internationalism ......................................................................... 104
4.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 111
5 Values, motivations and expectations of acquired international education ............. 113
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 113
5.2 Habitus and values .......................................................................................................... 114
5.3 Summary of survey responses about values and attitudinal changes .............................. 115
5.4 Motivations, expectations and goals of acquired overseas education ............................. 118
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5.5 Filial piety as the principle of morality ........................................................................... 122
5.6 Western supremacy and instrumentality of education ..................................................... 125
5.7 Self, individualisation and individualism ........................................................................ 131
5.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 133
6 Practical experiences in the “professional” field ........................................................ 138
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 138
6.2 Viet Nam’s business environment ................................................................................... 139
6.3 Participants’ attributes in the “professional” field ........................................................... 143
6.4 Resource opportunity structures ...................................................................................... 144
6.5 Cultural opportunity structures ........................................................................................ 154
6.5 Career opportunity structures .......................................................................................... 162
6.7 Conclusion: Summary of findings and implications ....................................................... 166
7 Practical experiences in the “intellectual” field .......................................................... 170
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 170
7.2 Viet Nam’s higher education system ............................................................................... 171
7.3 Summary of participants by types of universities ........................................................... 176
7.4 Resource opportunity structures ...................................................................................... 177
7.5 Cultural opportunity structures ........................................................................................ 187
7.6 Career opportunity structures .......................................................................................... 194
7.6 Conclusion: Summary of findings and implications ....................................................... 199
8 Practical experiences in the “civic” field ..................................................................... 203
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 203
8.2 The nature of community and civic culture in Viet Nam ................................................ 203
8.3 Overview of returnees’ engagement in community work ............................................... 207
8.4 Resource opportunity structures ...................................................................................... 209
8.5 Cultural opportunity structures ........................................................................................ 216
8.6 Community work opportunity structures ......................................................................... 227
8.7 Conclusion: Summary of findings and implications ....................................................... 230
9 Conclusion: Recap, reflection and future research directions .................................. 232
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 232
9.2 Recapping the key empirical findings ............................................................................. 233
9.3 Theoretical implications for conceptualising normative agency and empowerment ...... 246
9.4 Reflection on the use of Bourdieuian theories to supplement Sen’s CA ........................ 251
9.5 Implications of the research for ethical development ...................................................... 255
9.6 Conclusion: Limitations of the research and suggestions for future research directions 259
References .............................................................................................................................. 263
Appendix I. List of Vietnamese Student Abroad Organisations, Overseas Universities Alumni
Chapters, LinkedIn Professional Groups, and Universities visited ................................. 284
Appendix II. The survey instrument ....................................................................................... 286
Appendix III. Invitation letter to participate in interviews ..................................................... 303
Appendix IV. Information sheet for survey respondents ........................................................ 305
Appendix V. Information sheet for interviewees .................................................................... 306
Appendix VI. Interview Schedules ......................................................................................... 308
Appendix VII. List of interviewees, employment sector and community work ..................... 313
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Appendix VIII. Viet Nam’s employed population by types of enterprise, and number of
enterprises as of July 2013 .............................................................................................. 314
Appendix IX (a). Viet Nam’s employed population by economic sectors as of July 2013 .... 316
Appendix IX (b). Number of enterprises by types of economic activities in Viet Nam as of
December 2012 ................................................................................................................ 317
Appendix X. List of survey respondents in paid work by economic sectors .......................... 318
Appendix XI. Number of universities, student enrolment and teaching staff in Viet Nam from
2008 to 2013 .................................................................................................................... 324
Appendix XII. Final Ethics Approval to conduct research ..................................................... 325
Appendix XIII. Final Ethics Report ........................................................................................ 328
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 Demographic information of survey respondents
Table 3.2 Summary of survey respondents by host countries
Table 3.3 Summary of survey respondents by economic activities
Table 3.4 Summary of survey respondents by type of community activities
Table 3.5 Sampling criteria for selecting key interviewees
Table 3.6 Demographic information of key interviewees
Table 6.1 Summary of survey respondents in the professional field by types of
enterprises
Table 7.1 Summary of survey respondents in the intellectual field by types of
universities
Table 8.1 Summary of survey respondents by types of community activities, and level
of participation
Table i Employed population at 15 years of age and above as of 1 July 2013 by
types of ownership
Table ii Number of enterprises by size of capital and ownership type as of 1 July
2013
Table iii Employed population at 15 years of age and above as of 1 July 2013 by
kinds of economic activity
Table iv Number of enterprises as of 31 December 2012 by size of capital and by
kinds of economic activity
Table v List of survey respondents in paid work by economic activities and business
enterprises
Table vi List of survey respondents in paid work by economic sectors and by gender
Table vii List of survey respondents in paid work by economic sectors and by types
of overseas-acquired qualifications
Table viii List of survey respondents in paid work by economic sectors and by types
of overseas education funding programs
Table ix List of survey respondents in paid work by place of residence
Table x List of survey respondents in paid work by host countries
Table xi List of survey respondents in paid work by income levels
Table xii Statistical information about number of universities, student enrolment and
teaching staff
List of Figures
Fig 5.1 Summary of survey respondents’ values and attitudinal change
Fig 6.1 Comparison of types of skills, knowledge and attributes acquired from
overseas study and required in the “professional” field
Fig 7.1 Comparison of types of skills, knowledge and attributes acquired from
overseas study and required in the “intellectual” field
Fig 8.1 Comparison of types of skills, knowledge and attributes acquired from
overseas study and required in community work for the survey
respondents with frequent participation
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List of Abbreviations
ADB Asian Development Bank
AEI Australian Education International
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations
CA Capability Approach
CPV Communist Party of Viet Nam
DN Da Nang
FAE Foreign affiliated enterprise
FDI Foreign direct investments
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HERA Higher Education Reform Agenda
HCMC Ho Chi Minh City
HN Ha Noi
IIE Institute of International Education
IPP International Partnership Program
IT Information and Technology
MNC Multinational Corporation
MOET Ministry of Education and Training
MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
NGO Non-government organisation
NSE Non-State owned enterprise
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
SOE State-owned enterprise
SBV State Bank of Viet Nam
USOM United States Operation Mission
VCA Viet Nam Cooperative Alliance
VCCI Viet Nam Chamber of Commerce and Industry
VFF Viet Nam Father Front
VHLSS Viet Nam Household Living Standards Survey
WEF World Economic Forum
WVS World Values Survey
WTO World Trade Organisation
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Summary of thesis
Discourses in international education have largely focused on economic and political
imperatives, which emphasise institutional measures such as student mobility, international
partnerships and alliances as evidence of efficiency and achievement. This thesis aims to shift
that thinking to consider perspectives of human development and international graduates’
contribution to development of their home countries. Along this vision, and in consideration
of the large population of international students from Asian developing countries, this thesis
explores the transformative potential of acquired international education for Vietnamese
graduates in their local communities.
Through the lens of Amartya Sen’s agency-focused Capability Approach, this thesis
examines the aspirations, opportunities and practices of Vietnamese overseas graduates in
their work and community work after returning to Viet Nam. This thesis employs Pierre
Bourdieu’s sociological concepts of habitus, capital and field to operationalise Sen’s notions
of effective agency as the transformative capacity of these returnees to enable personal and
social change in their work and community participation. It offers concepts of normative
agency and intersubjective freedom as a theoretical framework, and the use of reflexive
sociology as an innovative way to engage with the returnees’ “reasoning” of their values,
choices and practices.
This research employed a mixed method approach of online surveys of Vietnamese
overseas-educated returnees (N=280), followed by in-depth interviews with key returnees and
members of their networks (N=48). The interviews provided a fuller account of the returnees’
experiences identified in the surveys, thus were the primary focus of analysis and discussions
in this thesis. This thesis provides understanding about the types of overseas-acquired skills,
knowledge, attributes and attitudes that these returnees can utilise, in light of Viet Nam’s
historical, economic, cultural and political contexts, and institutional structures of their
workplaces and community organisations. The returnees’ practical experiences suggest
competing values that underline the complexity of co-opting with societal norms and making
autonomous choices and actions in the process of agency and social change. This thesis offers
some implications for international education providers to contribute to ethical development
of emerging knowledge societies, and for public policies in Viet Nam to support overseas-
educated returnees in contributing to their communities. This thesis offers significant
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theoretical contributions and insights into the experiences of international graduates upon
returning home, thus sets the ground for further research work in this area.
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Candidate’s Statement of Authenticity
I certify that the thesis entitled “Understanding the transformative potential of international
education for Vietnamese overseas graduates and their communities” is the result of my own
research, except where otherwise acknowledged, and that this thesis has not been submitted
for a higher degree to any other university or institution.
I certify that I obtained approval from the Macquarie University Ethics Committee prior to
conducting the research, and that I have met the reporting compliance of the National
Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007). The Ethics Committee approval
protocol number is 5201300115.
Name: Lien Thi Pham
Signed:
Date: May 2016
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Acknowledgements
I have always wanted to be a writer who tells stories about people’s lives, the kind of stories
that engage readers to imagine a world that they may never visit, and hear the voices of the
people that they may never meet. So I embarked on writing a research thesis. Little did I
know how challenging yet nourishing that process turned out to be. It is not so much because
of the enduring process of writing or the rigour of research. Rather, it is the people that I have
met along the way, the people whose experiences, knowledge, thoughtfulness and generosity
have enriched my learning, and allowed me to really understand my place in this world. I
wish to express my gratitude to all those people who have taken time to work with me and
supported me in this research project and writing this thesis.
There are some specific people that I wish to acknowledge with my sincere gratitude. I
would like to thank Dr Adam Stebbing for his engagement in my writings and immense help
in other aspects of my PhD candidature. Dr Ben Spies-Butcher, who always challenged my
ideas and claims with his analytical mind. Dr David Saltmarsh, whose willingness to let me
find and assert my own intellectual thoughts speaks of inclusiveness that is rare in academia.
Conversations with Dr Saltmarsh have always allowed me to step into the space of scholars
with humility and discovery of what real knowledge is and could be. I would like to thank
Professor Eric Olin Wright for his advice on research methods in the early stage of my
research. Professor Raewyn Connell for her clarity of thoughts and illuminating questions that
challenged and sharpened the directions of my thesis. Professor Jay Drydyk for taking time to
listen and argue my concepts about power just when I thought I had them neatly laid out. I
would like to thank other senior scholars at the Human Development and Capability
Association whose works guided me and whose conversations encouraged me to make sense
of my ideas in the sea of literature, much of which I can only hope to continue reading and
understanding. My warm gratitude to Ance Kaleja and Suryapratim Roy for the scholarly
discussions that have enhanced my understanding of human development from other
disciplinary perspectives.
I wish to thank Associate Professor Jane Torr for her sensitivity and kindness that
provided me the mentoring at various times. Dr Emilia Djonov for her friendship and
encouragement, especially at the later stage of my thesis. My friend Eli Granite, whose
humour and candidness were always breaths of freshness. Professor Gabriel Kolko and Dr
Joseph Hannah, whom I have not met, but whose writings have inspired me because of their
