understanding culture shock the adjustment of expatriate sojourners on international assignment ...

311 Pages·2016·2.78 MB·English

by  Frank Fitzpatrick

UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SHOCK
THE ADJUSTMENT OF EXPATRIATE SOJOURNERS ON
INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENT

JOHN FRANCIS FITZPATRICK

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE
SCIENCES
JULY 2016
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ABSTRACT

Expatriate sojourners are often described as experiencing “culture shock” when
moving to and settling in a new location. This study challenges the notion of “culture”
as a tangible, objective concept that causes a “shock” or a “clash” and argues that it
is how individuals and groups deal with the macro socio-political context and micro-
cultural situations on a day to day basis that influences how they experience their
new environment. In this sense, context is seen as a multidimensional framework for
social interaction and adjustment, and this study examines the role that different
discourses or worldviews play in interpreting daily life in Cuba, a highly politically
sensitive and insular location. Using participant observation techniques, the
researcher builds up a rich ethnographic “thick-description” of the daily challenges
that international sojourners face when adjusting to a new environment in a
particularly challenging location, and, by drawing on accounts of how individuals see
the challenges they face and what helps them adapt, describes adjustment as a
multi-faceted phenomenon. What is highlighted are the various types of challenges
that sojourners experience and the pressures that people and families experience in
adapting to new roles in unfamiliar working and living environments. A model for
sojourner adjustment is then proposed based on a study of the various social
networks that expatriate groups create, and the type and level of personal and
institutional resources and social support that might influence adjustment.

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DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is wholly my own work

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Dr Peter Sercombe and Dr Tony Young for their guidance and
support throughout this project. I would also like to thank them, together with
members of Newcastle University administration, management and annual panels,
for their patience with and understanding of my situation as a part-time student and
for showing flexibility over my attendance and participation throughout the thesis.

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION ............................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................. iv
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. x
Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1.1 The motivation for the study ................................................................ 1
1.2 The details of the study......................................................................... 2
1.3 The nature of the context ...................................................................... 4
1.4 The importance of sociological imagination ....................................... 5
Chapter 2. Research Context ......................................................................... 7
2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 7
2.2 “Coming out” as researcher ................................................................. 8
2.3 Personal narrative ................................................................................. 8
2.4 Cuba today ........................................................................................... 11
2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Cuba and its population................................................................ 12
2.4.3 The Cuban political system .......................................................... 14
2.4.4 The economy ................................................................................. 15
2.4.5 Social background ........................................................................ 18
2.4.6 Communications and media in Cuba .......................................... 22
2.4.7 “El Bloqueo”: Cuba’s never ending story ................................... 24
2.4.8 “La reforma”: Cuba’s new story .................................................. 25
2.4.9 “The enemy within” ....................................................................... 26
2.4.10 Human rights in Cuba ................................................................. 29
2.4.11 Conclusion ................................................................................... 30
2.5 Perspectives on Cuba ......................................................................... 31
2.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 31
2.5.2 “Granma”: The dominant discourse ............................................ 33
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2.5.3 “La blogosfera”: The demotic discourse .................................... 41
2.5.4 Perspectives from outside Cuba ................................................. 45
2.5.5 Summary of perspectives on Cuba ............................................. 49
2.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 50
Chapter 3. Literature review ........................................................................ 51
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 51
3.2 Key concepts ....................................................................................... 52
3.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 52
3.2.2 Culture ........................................................................................... 53
3.2.3 Context .......................................................................................... 56
3.2.4 Discourse ...................................................................................... 59
3.2.5 Culture shock ................................................................................ 63
3.3 International Expatriate adjustment research .................................. 73
3.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 73
3.3.2 The nature of intercultural contact .............................................. 74
3.3.3 Individual factors in expatriate adjustment ................................ 76
3.3.4 Social interaction in adjustment .................................................. 92
3.3.5 Social support in adjustment ....................................................... 99
3.3.6 The role of the spouse and the family in international
assignments ......................................................................................... 101
3.4 Conclusion and rationale for the research ..................................... 104
Chapter 4. Research Methodology ........................................................... 106
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 106
4.2 The issue of research sensitivity ..................................................... 106
4.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 106
4.2.2 Forbidden research terrains ...................................................... 106
4.2.3 Doing research on sensitive topics ........................................... 107
4.2.4 Doing research in politically sensitive locations ..................... 110
4.2.5 Adapting the research approach ............................................... 111
4.2.6 Covert research in Cuba ............................................................ 113
4.2.7 Research agenda ........................................................................ 115
4.3 Methodological approach ................................................................. 117
4.3.1 Ethnography ................................................................................ 117
4.3.2 Ethnography and “thick description” ....................................... 119
4.3.3 Access to the setting .................................................................. 121
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4.3.4 Reactivity ..................................................................................... 122
4.3.5 Sampling ...................................................................................... 123
4.3.6 Ethical considerations ................................................................ 124
4.3.7 Research questions .................................................................... 127
4.4 Dealing with subjectivity ................................................................... 128
4.4.1 Reliability and Validity in qualitative research .......................... 128
4.4.2 Reflexivity .................................................................................... 130
4.4.3 Voice and discourse in and about Cuba ................................... 131
4.4.4 Internal validity and reliability .................................................... 133
4.4.5 The issue of “generalisability” ................................................... 135
4.5 Data collection ................................................................................... 137
4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 137
4.5.2 Participant observation .............................................................. 137
4.5.3 Field notes ................................................................................... 138
4.5.4 A complex of voices from Cuba ................................................. 139
4.6 Data presentation and analysis ........................................................ 140
4.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 140
4.6.2 Organising the data ..................................................................... 140
4.6.3 Presenting the data ..................................................................... 141
4.6.4 Building thick interpretation and the use of sociological
imagination ........................................................................................... 142
Chapter 5. Presentation of data ................................................................. 144
5.1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 144
5.2 Focus on challenges ......................................................................... 145
5.2.1 Living with scarcity ..................................................................... 146
5.2.2 Living with control and surveillance ......................................... 158
5.2.3 Living with inequality .................................................................. 168
5.2.4 Living with personal change in relocation ................................ 183
5.3 Focus on adjustment......................................................................... 190
5.3.1 Support and resources for adjustment ..................................... 191
5.3.2 Building social networks ............................................................ 203
5.3.3 Sociocultural adjustment............................................................ 211
5.4 Summary ............................................................................................ 222
Chapter 6. Discussion of Key Findings .................................................... 223
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 223
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6.2 Discussion of key findings ............................................................... 223
6.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 223
6.2.2 Types of demands on sojourners .............................................. 223
6.2.3 The adjustment process ............................................................. 234
6.3 A model for understanding sojourner culture shock ..................... 250
Chapter 7. Conclusion ............................................................................... 254
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 254
7.2 The salience of context .................................................................... 254
7.3 Adjustment in politically sensitive locations .................................. 256
7.4 Taking the “culture” out of “culture shock” ................................... 258
7.5 Implications for research ................................................................. 260
7.6 Implications for international organisations................................... 261
7.7 Limitations of the research .............................................................. 262
7.8 The future of Cuba ............................................................................ 263
References .................................................................................................. 265
Appendices ................................................................................................. 290
APPENDIX A: EXTRACT FROM GRANMA ............................................ 290
APPENDIX B: “POLAR BAR” SOCAL EVENING ................................... 292
APPENDIX C: LIST OF SOURCES ON CUBA ........................................ 293
APPENDIX D: PROCESS OF THEMATIC CODING ................................ 299

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Map of Cuba .......................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.2 Old Havana ............................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.3 “Let everyone do their duty and nobody can defeat us” (Jose Martí)
............................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 2.4 “All our actions are a cry against imperialism” (Che Guevara) ........ 40
Figure 3.1 Mexico culture Quiz .............................................................................. 90
Figure 6.1 The challenges of living with scarcity for sojourners ..................... 225
Figure 6.2 The challenges of living with surveillance and control for sojourners
.......................................................................................................................... 226
Figure 6.3 The challenges of living with inequality for sojourners .................. 227
Figure 6.4 Sources of environmental demands for sojourners ........................ 228
Figure 6.5 Lifestyle changes for sojourners ....................................................... 233
Figure 6.6 Personal resources in adjustment .................................................... 236
Figure 6.7 Forms of institutional and social support for sojourners ............... 240
Figure 6.8 Examples of building social networks for strong and weak ties .... 243
Figure 6.9 Sociocultural adjustment strategy in sojourners ............................. 245
Figure 6.10 Sociocultural adjustment progression of sojourners over time ... 246
Figure 6.11 A model of sojourner culture shock ................................................ 253

LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1 Analysis of living with scarcity ................................................... 156
Table 5.2 Analysis of living with control and surveillance ........................ 166
Table 5.3 Analysis of living with inequality ................................................ 181
Table 5.4 Analysis of living with personal change .................................... 189
Table 5.5 Analysis of support and resources for adjustment ................... 201
Table 5.6 Analysis of building social networks .......................................... 209
Table 5.7 Analysis of sociocultural adjustment ......................................... 219

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