Table Of ContentSPRINGER BRIEFS IN
PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Amin Taghavinejad
Mehdi Ostadhassan
Reza Daneshfar
Unconventional
Reservoirs: Rate and
Pressure Transient
Analysis Techniques
A Reservoir
Engineering Approach
SpringerBriefs in Petroleum Geoscience &
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Exploration:ConventionalandUnconventional
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SeismicInterpretation
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FormationEvaluation(welllogging)
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DrillingandCompletion
(cid:129)
HydraulicFracturing
(cid:129)
Geomechanics
(cid:129)
ReservoirSimulationandModelling
(cid:129)
FlowinPorousMedia:fromnano-tofield-scale
(cid:129)
ReservoirEngineering
(cid:129)
ProductionEngineering
(cid:129)
WellEngineering;Design,DecommissioningandAbandonment
(cid:129)
PetroleumSystems;InstrumentationandControl
(cid:129)
FlowAssurance,MineralScale&Hydrates
(cid:129)
ReservoirandWellIntervention
(cid:129)
ReservoirStimulation
(cid:129)
OilfieldChemistry
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PetroleumEconomicsandEnergyPolicy
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· ·
Amin Taghavinejad Mehdi Ostadhassan
Reza Daneshfar
Unconventional Reservoirs:
Rate and Pressure Transient
Analysis Techniques
A Reservoir Engineering Approach
AminTaghavinejad MehdiOstadhassan
DepartmentofPetroleumEngineering KeyLaboratoryofContinentalShale
AmirkabirUniversityofTechnology HydrocarbonAccumulationandEfficient
Tehran,Iran Development,MinistryofEducation
NortheastPetroleumUniversity
RezaDaneshfar Daqing,Heilongjiang,China
DepartmentofPetroleumEngineering
PetroleumUniversityofTechnology
Ahwaz,Iran
ISSN2509-3126 ISSN2509-3134 (electronic)
SpringerBriefsinPetroleumGeoscience&Engineering
ISBN978-3-030-82836-3 ISBN978-3-030-82837-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82837-0
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2022
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Thisbookisdedicatedto:
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to the Department of
PetroleumEngineeringattheAmirkabirUniversityofTechnologyfortheirimmense
supportsandfeedbackduringthepreparationofthisbook.Additionally,we’dliketo
thanktheKeyLaboratoryofContinentalShaleAccumulationandEfficientDevel-
opmentattheNortheastPetroleumUniversityinDaqingChina,fortheircontinuous
encouragementofouracademicendeavors.
LastbutnotleastMehdiOstadhassanwouldliketoextendhissinceregratitude
to his wife Bailey without whom and his full-time support, encouragement, and
dedicationhiscontributiontothisbookwouldn’thavebeenpossible.Shewasaway
when this book was being developed in a separate country to take care of our two
beautifulsons,ElijahAliandJonasReza.
Ultimately,wethankourfriends,colleagues,andcollaboratorsfortheirfeedback,
input,andscientificdiscussionswhichsignificantlyimprovedthequalityofthisbook.
vii
Contents
1 UnconventionalOilandGasReservoirs .......................... 1
1.1 IntroductiontoUnconventionalReservoirs ..................... 1
1.2 UnconventionalGasReservoirs ............................... 2
1.2.1 TightGasReservoirs ................................. 3
1.2.2 ShaleGasReservoirs ................................. 4
1.2.3 Coal-BedMethaneReservoirs ......................... 5
1.3 UnconventionalOilReservoirs ............................... 5
1.3.1 TightOilReservoirs .................................. 6
1.3.2 ShaleOilReservoirs .................................. 7
1.4 UnconventionalReservoirsDevelopment ...................... 7
References ..................................................... 9
2 UnconventionalReservoirEngineering ........................... 11
2.1 FluidFlowinReservoirs .................................... 11
2.1.1 HydraulicallyFracturedWells ......................... 11
2.1.2 NaturallyFracturedReservoirs ......................... 12
2.1.3 FluidFlowinPorousMediaofURs .................... 13
2.2 UnconventionalReservoirEngineeringWorkflow ............... 22
2.2.1 ReservoirandHydraulicFracturesCharacterization ....... 23
2.2.2 HydraulicFractureModeling .......................... 29
2.2.3 ReservoirModeling .................................. 30
2.2.4 DevelopmentalandEconomicalPlanning ................ 32
References ..................................................... 32
3 PressureTransientAnalysis ..................................... 35
3.1 Pre-FracWellTest .......................................... 35
3.1.1 Mini-DST ........................................... 35
3.1.2 Mini-FracTest ....................................... 38
ix
x Contents
3.2 Post-FracWellTest ......................................... 41
3.2.1 BilinearFlowAnalysis ............................... 41
3.2.2 LinearFlowAnalysis ................................. 47
3.2.3 TypeCurveMatchingAnalysis ......................... 51
References ..................................................... 63
4 RateTransientAnalysis ......................................... 65
4.1 DeclineRateAnalysis ....................................... 65
4.1.1 ArpsDeclineCurveAnalysis .......................... 65
4.1.2 UnconventionalReservoirsDeclineCurveAnalysis ....... 68
4.2 RateTransientAnalysis ..................................... 71
4.2.1 PrimaryRateTransientAnalysisTechniques ............. 71
4.2.2 UnconventionalReservoirsRTATechniques ............. 77
References ..................................................... 98
AppendixA ....................................................... 101
AppendixB ....................................................... 103
AppendixC ....................................................... 109
Chapter 1
Unconventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs
1.1 IntroductiontoUnconventionalReservoirs
Unconventionalresourcesorunconventionalreservoirs(UR)refertoacategoryof
undergroundhydrocarbondepositswhicharedifferentinoperationsandmethodsof
recoverycomparedtoconventionalreservoirs.Asamatteroffact,suchdiscrepancies
originatefromtheirspecialgeological,geochemical,andpetrophysicalcharacteris-
tics.ThemostimportantfeatureofURsistheirlow-permeabilitynature.Also,some
storageandflowmechanismsofthesereservoirsarenotcommoninconventionaloil
andgasdeposits.Thus,itcanbeexpectedthatURsrequirespecialstudiesinorder
toenhancetheirefficiencyalongwithaneconomicalproduction.
Consideringthegeologyandstructureofunconventionalresources,itissignifi-
cantlyimportantthatthemajorityofthesereservoirsareseenasrelativelydeep,exten-
sive,aswellasgreatlylow-permeableporousrocklayers.Hencemostofthesereser-
voirsarepetroleumsourcerockswherehydrocarbonmigrationintoupperpermeable
layershavenotoccurred,andsubsequentlyconventionalreservoirrockscannotbe
identifieddistinctly.Infact,inthiskindofreservoirs,theproductionoperationstake
placedirectlyfromthesourcerocks.However,URssuchascoal-bedmethaneand
gas hydrates are exempted from this specific feature of unconventional resources;
while,differences inphysicochemical properties withconventional reservoirs,and
the necessity of special production techniques will categorize them under URs. In
thisbookouremphasisismostlyonshaleandtightreservoirsallofwhichareoften
consideredrelativelydeepsourcerockswithverylowpermeabilityandhugelateral-
extent.Thisbeingsaid,inthefollowingsection,importantfeaturesofthesereservoirs
along with coal-bed methane—that in retrospect share similar characteristics with
shalegasreservoirs—arediscussed.
Schematicofalarge-scalegeologicalprofileinFig.1.1,demonstratesstructural
geology,lateralextent,andgeologicalsequenceofthesereservoirsaswellastheir
differences from the conventional reservoirs in a glance. This figure indicates that
thetightandshaleoil/gaslayershaveanextensivedistribution,accommodatingfor
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A.Taghavinejadetal.,UnconventionalReservoirs:RateandPressureTransientAnalysis
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