Table Of Content«
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Trends in
Trends in International Migration
This report presents an analysis of recent trends in migration movements and policies in OECD International
countries as well as in certain non-member countries. It includes a detailed description of the flows,
the different channels of immigration and the nationalities of the migrants concerned. It highlights the
contribution of immigration to increases in the total population and the labour force and describes the Migration
changes that have taken place in the sectoral distribution of foreign workers. Particular attention is
given to recent measures implemented by several Member countries to facilitate the recruitment of
skilled and highly skilled foreign workers.
The report notes that the control of flows remains a high priority on the agenda of migration policies,
as does the integration of immigrants into the labour market and society as a whole together with the
extension of co-operation with countries of origin.
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
In addition to this overall analysis, the reader will also find in this publication:
• Two sections on immigration flows from Asia and recent developments in migration movements in
central and eastern European countries.
• A special chapter devoted to a comparative analysis of student mobility between and towards
OECD countries.
• Country notes describing in detail recent developments in migration flows and policies.
• A statistical annex containing the most recent available data on foreign and immigrant populations,
foreign workers, migration flows and naturalisations.
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SOPEMI 2001 ISBN 92-64-19670-6 SOPEMI 2001
81 2001 13 1 P
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SOPEMI
Trends
in International
Migration
Continuous Reporting System on Migration
ANNUAL REPORT
2001 EDITION
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force
on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote
policies designed:
– To achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in
Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the
world economy.
– To contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries in the process
of economic development. And
– To contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with
international obligations.
The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became Members
subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th Janu-
ary 1969), Australia (7thJune 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic
(21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), Korea (12th December 1996) and
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The essence of CCNM co-operative programmes with non-Members is to make the rich and varied assets
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Likewise, Member countries benefit from the exchange of experience with experts and officials from
non-Member economies.
The CCNM’s programmes cover the major policy areas of OECD expertise that are of mutual interest to non-
Members. These include: economic monitoring, structural adjustment through sectoral policies, trade policy,
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market, education and social policy, as well as innovation and technological policy development.
Publié en français sous le titre:
Tendances des migrations internationales
RAPPORT ANNUEL
© OECD 2001
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FOREWORD
This twenty-sixth annual report of the OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration (known under its
French acronym SOPEMI), published as Trends in International Migration, draws largely on 31written contributions
from national correspondents (see the list at the end of this report), and on the summary of their discussions
at their last annual meeting (December 2000).
The 2001 Edition is divided into three parts and a Statistical Annex. PartI describes the overall trends in
international migration. It focuses on the magnitude, the nature and the direction of flows, as well as the
presence of foreign workers in the labour market and in the various sectors of economic activity. Special
attention is also given to the role that immigration could play in moderating the effects of an ageing population.
Two additional sections describe in detail migration from Asia towards OECD countries together with migration
movements in Central and Eastern Europe. Part I is completed by an overview of migration policies, in particular
those relating to the control of flows, the fight against irregular migration and illegal employment of foreigners, as
well as the integration of immigrants in host countries and international co-operation.
PartII is devoted to a comparative analysis of student mobility between and towards OECD countries.
This part shows that student mobility is constantly increasing and that it constitutes a potential flow of
qualified workers in host countries. From the point of view of the sending countries, the potential gains
relating to this mobility (development of human capital, strengthening of cultural and commercial ties, transfer
of technology) may be limited as a result of the brain drain. Greater co-ordination and co-operation between
students’ countries of origin and destination would lead to fairer sharing of the advantages linked to
international student mobility.
PartIII is composed of country notes describing recent developments in migration flows and policies in
twenty-nine OECD countries and non-member countries (The Baltic States, Bulgaria and Romania).
This volume is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.
3
© OECD 2001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................ 13
Part I
MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
A. MIGRATION AND POPULATION TRENDS........................................................................................................................... 17
1. Trends in migration movements and changes in the foreign population................................................................. 17
2. Immigration and population growth in OECD countries............................................................................................. 46
B. IMMIGRANTS AND THE LABOUR MARKET....................................................................................................................... 53
1. Foreigners’ contribution to the labour force is increasing.......................................................................................... 53
2. Participation rates of foreigners by gender and place of birth: persistent imbalances.......................................... 54
3. Recent developments in the employment of foreigners and the increasing presence
of foreign labour in the service sector........................................................................................................................... 56
4. Foreigners are more vulnerable to unemployment than nationals........................................................................... 59
5. Foreign employment and labour market equilibrium................................................................................................. 62
C. RECENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN ASIA AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE................... 63
1. Recent developments in Asian migration to OECD countries.................................................................................... 63
2. Trends in migration flows in Central and Eastern Europe........................................................................................... 68
3. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................................... 76
D. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES.......................................................................................................................... 76
1. Policies for regulating and controlling flows.................................................................................................................. 76
2. Reinforcement of legislation concerning the fight against irregular migration
and illegal employment of foreigners............................................................................................................................ 79
3. Policies for the integration of immigrants...................................................................................................................... 81
4. Migration, international co-operation and the enlargement of the European Union.............................................. 84
Part II
STUDENT MOBILITY BETWEEN AND TOWARDS OECD COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................ 93
A. STUDENT MIGRATIONS: FORM AND PREREQUISITES OF MIGRATIONS OF HRST.................................................... 93
1. Student migrations: a form of migration of qualified labour… ............................................................................... 93
2. …and also a precursor of subsequent migrations, mainly HRST.............................................................................. 95
B. SCALE AND DYNAMICS OF THE STUDENT MIGRATION PHENOMENON.................................................................... 98
1. Numbers of students........................................................................................................................................................ 99
2. Dynamic trends................................................................................................................................................................. 102
C. GEOGRAPHICAL POLARISATION OFSTUDENT MIGRATORY FLOWS........................................................................... 102
1. A phenomenon concentrated in a few large countries................................................................................................ 102
2. Distinction between mobility within/outside OECD countries.................................................................................. 105 5
© OECD 2001
Trends in International Migration
D. THE POPULATION CONCERNED: CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREIGN STUDENTS........................................................ 106
1. Level of education............................................................................................................................................................ 106
2. Disciplines......................................................................................................................................................................... 107
3. The science and engineering fields............................................................................................................................... 108
E. DETERMINING FACTORS IN STUDENT MOBILITY........................................................................................................... 110
1. Centres of expertise......................................................................................................................................................... 110
2. The role of cultural and linguistic factors...................................................................................................................... 110
3. The role of institutional factors....................................................................................................................................... 112
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................................................................ 112
Part III
RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES
(COUNTRY NOTES)
Australia........................................................................ 119 Korea............................................................................. 202
Austria........................................................................... 125 Luxembourg.................................................................. 204
The Baltic States.......................................................... 131 Mexico........................................................................... 207
Belgium......................................................................... 136 Netherlands.................................................................. 210
Bulgaria......................................................................... 139 New Zealand................................................................. 216
Canada.......................................................................... 143 Norway........................................................................... 218
Czech Republic............................................................ 150 Poland........................................................................... 223
Denmark....................................................................... 154 Portugal......................................................................... 227
Finland.......................................................................... 158 Romania........................................................................ 232
France........................................................................... 161 Slovak Republic........................................................... 237
Germany....................................................................... 169 Spain.............................................................................. 240
Greece.......................................................................... 176 Sweden.......................................................................... 243
Hungary........................................................................ 180 Switzerland................................................................... 247
Ireland........................................................................... 185 Turkey............................................................................ 252
Italy............................................................................... 192 United Kingdom........................................................... 254
Japan............................................................................. 197 United States................................................................ 261
STATISTICAL ANNEX
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................ 269
A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY OF MIGRATION STATISTICS...................................................................................... 269
1. Sources of migration statistics........................................................................................................................................ 269
2. Measurement of migration flows.................................................................................................................................... 271
3. Stocks of migrants and characteristics of the immigrant population......................................................................... 273
B. STATISTICAL SERIES............................................................................................................................................................. 274
LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS.................................................................................................................................... 367
6
© OECD 2001
Table of Contents
List of Charts and Tables
Part I
MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Maps
I.1. Foreign population in the European regions, 2000...................................................................................................... 43
I.2. Foreign-born population in Canada and the United States by region, latest available year................................. 44
I.3. Foreign-born population in Australia by region, 1996................................................................................................. 45
I.4. Asia: main countries of origin of immigrants residing in OECD countries in 1999................................................... 64
I.5. Net migration rate (NMR) in Central Europe and bordering countries, 1990 and 1999.......................................... 70
Charts
I.1. Inflows of foreigners in some OECD countries, 1980-1999.......................................................................................... 18
I.2. Permanent or long-term immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories in1999.............. 21
I.3. Trends in flows of asylum seekers from1990 to2000.................................................................................................. 24
I.4. Change in inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, 1990-1998 and1999......................... 29
I.5. Stock of foreign population in selected OECD countries, 1999.................................................................................. 36
I.6. Foreign and national populations by age group and by sex, latest available year................................................. 40
I.7. Components of total population growth in selected OECD countries and in the European Union, 1960-1999........... 47
I.8. Natural increase and net migration rates in OECD countries, 1999........................................................................... 49
I.9. Foreign births in1999....................................................................................................................................................... 51
I.10. Changes in foreign and total employment during economic recoveries................................................................... 57
I.11. Growth of foreign and total employment by economic activity between1994-1995 and1998-1999..................... 60
I.12. Proportion of foreigners in total unemployment relative to their share in the labour force.................................. 61
I.13. Percentage of long-term unemployment according to nationality............................................................................. 62
Tables
I.1. Inflows of asylum seekers in2000................................................................................................................................... 22
I.2. Inflows of temporary workers in selected OECD countries by principal categories, 1992, 1996-1999................... 26
I.3. Proportion of women in immigration flows in selected OECD countries, 1999 (unless otherwise indicated)..... 27
I.4. Stock of foreign students in some OECD countries, 1998........................................................................................... 28
I.5. Intracompany transferees in selected OECD countries, 1995-1999........................................................................... 28
I.6. Relative importance of the top 5countries in the total immigration flows and stocks of foreigners
in selected OECD countries............................................................................................................................................ 32
I.7. Minimum number of countries of origin which represent a cumulative 25 and 50%
of the total inflows of foreigners, 1990 and1999........................................................................................................... 33
I.8. Intra-European mobility of EUcitizens, latest available year.................................................................................... 35
I.9. Foreign or foreign-born population in selected OECD countries, 1994 and1999.................................................... 37
I.10. Maghrebian, Turkish, former Yugoslavian, Chinese, Vietnamese and Indian people
residing in selected OECD countries, 1999................................................................................................................... 38
I.11. Foreign and national adult populations classified by level of education in selected OECD countries............... 42
I.12. Change in total population in OECD countries, 1950, 2000 and2050........................................................................ 52
I.13. Foreign or foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries, 1994 and1999.................................................. 54
I.14. Participation rate and unemployment rate of nationals and foreigners by sex
in selected OECD countries, 1999-2000 average.......................................................................................................... 55
I.15. Employment of foreigners by sectors, 1999-2000 average.......................................................................................... 58
I.16.A. Stock of Asian nationals in selected OECD countries in1999.................................................................................... 65
I.16.B. Stock of immigrants born in an Asian country in Australia, Canada and the United States.................................... 65
I.17. Top five nationalities of citizens from Central and Eastern Europe in selected OECD countries, 1999............... 69
I.18. Foreigners residing in some central and eastern European countries, by major nationality, latest available year.... 74
Boxes
I.1. Migration statistics: definitions and comparability...................................................................................................... 19
I.2. The Kosovar refugees....................................................................................................................................................... 23
I.3. More women in all forms of migration........................................................................................................................... 27
I.4. Intra-European mobility.................................................................................................................................................. 34 7
© OECD 2001
Trends in International Migration
I.5. Measuring foreign births.................................................................................................................................................. 50
I.6. Labour market integration of immigrants: some case studies.................................................................................... 56
I.7. Where do undocumented immigrants work?................................................................................................................ 59
I.8. EU enlargement and research on its impact on flows of CEE workers...................................................................... 72
I.9. Future status of workers from third countries in the European Union...................................................................... 86
Part II
STUDENT MOBILITY BETWEEN AND TOWARDS OECD COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Charts
II.1. Potential and effective loss for the country of origin of students who finished their PhD in the United States........... 96
II.2. Net student mobility in selected OECD countries, 1998............................................................................................ 102
II.3. Main receiving countries of foreign students, 1998...................................................................................................... 104
Tables
II.1. Current regulations in OECD countries regarding possibilities for student visa holders
to change residence status and access the labour market, 2001............................................................................... 97
II.2. Foreign students in OECD countries, 1998................................................................................................................... 100
II.3. Students from non-OECD countries enrolled in an OECD country, 1998................................................................. 101
II.4. Relative intensity of student mobility, adjusted for the size of education systems, 1998..................................... 103
II.5. Foreign students by region of origin, 1998.................................................................................................................... 104
II.6. Main countries of origin of foreign students residing in selected OECD countries, 1998....................................... 105
II.7. Foreign students by level of education in selected OECD countries, 1998............................................................. 106
II.8. Proportion of foreign students by level of education in selected OECD countries, 1998...................................... 107
II.9. Foreign students by field of study (all tertiary levels) in the main OECD host countries, 1998............................ 108
II.10. Proportion of foreign students by field of study in selected OECD countries, 1998............................................... 108
II.11. Foreign students by field of study and by level of education, 1998......................................................................... 109
II.12. Distribution of outgoing students by language of the destination country, 1998.................................................... 111
II.13. Annual costs and gains of receiving undergraduate foreign students ...................................................................... 114
Boxes
II.1. Statistical sources and methods..................................................................................................................................... 94
II.2. Criteria for identification of foreign students in OECD countries.............................................................................. 98
Part III
RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES
(COUNTRY NOTES)
Charts
III.1. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, Australia............................................................................................. 120
III.2. Components of population change, 1983-1999, Austria.............................................................................................. 126
III.3. Stocks of foreigners holding a work permit, 1980-1999, Austria................................................................................. 129
III.4. Migration flows to the Baltic States, 1989-1999............................................................................................................ 133
III.5. Inflows of permanent settlers, by type, 1999, Canada................................................................................................. 144
III.6. Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class and region of origin, 1980-1999, Canada........................................... 145
III.7. Foreigners in Germany by country of origin and length of stay, 1999....................................................................... 172
III.8. Trends and characteristics of migration, Ireland.......................................................................................................... 186
III.9. Migration flows and components of foreign population change, 1980-1999, Netherlands..................................... 211
III.10. Fertility rates according to the nationality of the mother, 1990-1999, Netherlands................................................ 213
III.11. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, 1991/1992-1999/2000, New Zealand................................................ 216
III.12. Persons accepted for residence, by category of immigration, 1999/2000, New Zealand........................................ 217
III.13. Permanent migration flows in Poland, 1960-1999......................................................................................................... 224
III.14. Demographic characteristics of permanent emigrants, 1990-1999, Romania........................................................... 233
Tables
III.1. Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, 1997-2000 and planning levels
8 for permanent settlers for 2001, by category, Australia............................................................................................... 121
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Table of Contents
III.2. Socio-demographic characteristics of the native and foreign-born population, Australia, 1996 Census.............. 123
III.3. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population
and labour force in Austria.............................................................................................................................................. 127
III.4. Components of total population change in the Baltic States, 1996-1999.................................................................. 132
III.5. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population
and labour force in Belgium............................................................................................................................................ 137
III.6. Current figures on the stocks of foreign population, Bulgaria.................................................................................... 141
III.7. Immigrants by type, 1996-1999, Canada........................................................................................................................ 144
III.8. Immigrants by type and by country of birth, 1993 and 1999, Canada........................................................................ 146
III.9. Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants, Czech Republic.............................................................................. 151
III.10. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Denmark.......................................... 155
III.11. Immigrants by region of origin and educational attainment, 2000, Denmark........................................................... 157
III.12. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population, Finland............................................................................... 159
III.13. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France.............................................. 163
III.14. Total population by nationality and place of birth, France (mainland).................................................................... 165
III.15. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Germany........................................................................................................ 170
III.16. Regularisation programme of immigrants in an irregular situation, 2000, Greece................................................... 177
III.17. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population, Hungary........................................................ 181
III.18. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Ireland................................ 188
III.19. Current figures on foreign population, Italy.................................................................................................................. 194
III.20. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Japan............................... 198
III.21. Inflows of foreigners by status of residence, 1996-1999, Japan................................................................................... 199
III.22. Foreign workers in Korea by category, 1996-1999........................................................................................................ 203
III.23. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Luxembourg.................................................................................................. 206
III.24. Mexican emigration to the United States, 1911-1999................................................................................................... 208
III.25. Socio-economic characteristics of undocumented Mexican immigrants to the United States, 1990, 1998-2000.......... 209
III.26. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in the Netherlands............................... 212
III.27. Total labour force, participation rate and unemployment rate of the “autochtonous” and “allochtonous”
populations according to old and new definitions, 1998, Netherlands..................................................................... 215
III.28. Net migration, 1992/1993-1999/2000, New Zealand...................................................................................................... 216
III.29. Permanent and long term arrivals and departures, 1999/2000, New Zealand.......................................................... 217
III.30. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway........................................................................... 220
III.31. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreigners in Poland...................................................................... 224
III.32. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Portugal................................................ 229
III.33. Current migration figures in Romania............................................................................................................................ 235
III.34. Current migration figures, Slovak Republic................................................................................................................... 238
III.35. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in Spain................................................. 241
III.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Sweden............................................ 245
III.37. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Switzerland........................................................................................................ 248
III.38. Inflows of Turkish people to the Top 3European host countries, 1999.................................................................... 252
III.39. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force, United Kingdom................ 255
III.40. Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years 1996-1999, United States........................................ 265
Boxes
III.1. Longitudinal survey of immigrants to Australia............................................................................................................ 124
III.2. An overview of the structure and approach of Canada’s immigration programme.................................................. 149
III.3. The educational attainment of immigrants, Denmark ................................................................................................. 157
III.4. The1999census, France.................................................................................................................................................. 169
III.5. Policy on the entry of trainees and the conversion of their status to technical interns, Japan.............................. 199
III.6. The Industrial and Technical Training Programme (ITTP), Korea............................................................................... 204
III.7. New definition for Allochtonous, Netherlands............................................................................................................. 215
III.8. Links with Portuguese communities abroad, Portugal................................................................................................. 231
III.9. 2000regularisation campaign, Spain.............................................................................................................................. 243
III.10. The 18% initiative, Switzerland....................................................................................................................................... 251 9
© OECD 2001
