Table Of ContentEnvironmental Science and Engineering
Sushma Dave
Jayashankar Das Editors
Trends and
Contemporary
Technologies
for Photocatalytic
Degradation
of Dyes
Environmental Science and Engineering
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·
Sushma Dave Jayashankar Das
Editors
Trends and Contemporary
Technologies
for Photocatalytic
Degradation of Dyes
Editors
SushmaDave JayashankarDas
DepartmentofAppliedScience ValnizenHealthcare
JodhpurInstituteofEngineering Mumbai,Maharashtra,India
andTechnology
Jodhpur,Rajasthan,India
ISSN 1863-5520 ISSN 1863-5539 (electronic)
EnvironmentalScienceandEngineering
ISBN 978-3-031-08990-9 ISBN 978-3-031-08991-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08991-6
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Contents
1 Dyes and Pigments: Interventions and How Safe
andSustainableAreColorsofLife!!! ............................ 1
SushmaDave, JayashankarDas, BhoomikaVarshney,
andV.P.Sharma
2 RecentAdvancesinPhotocatalyticDegradationofDyesUsing
HeterogeneousCatalysts ....................................... 21
BubulDas, HirendraNathDhara, AnjaliDahiya,
andBhismaK.Patel
3 RecentDevelopmentsinPhotocatalyticTechniquesofDye
DegradationinEffluents ....................................... 65
BarkhaTiwariandHuiJoonPark
4 RoleofDopedSemiconductorsintheCatalyticActivity ........... 101
AshishGaurav,AnantaPaul,andSushmaDave
5 Hybrid Treatment Technologies for Dye Degradation
inWastewater ................................................ 135
SwatiSingh
6 AerogelNanomaterialsforDyeDegradation ..................... 151
SanjanaJacob,S.Kaviya,andK.Anand
7 Effective Materials in the Photocatalytic Treatment
ofDyestuffsandStainedWastewater ............................ 173
RahulBhattacharjee, TamoghniMitra, PriyaMitra,
SoumyaBiswas, SaikatGhosh, SohamChattopadhyay,
SumiraMalik,andAbhijitDey
8 Optimizing Nanocatalyst’s and Technological Factors
Influencing on Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic
andInorganicPollutants ....................................... 201
SushmaDaveandPratikJagtap
v
vi Contents
9 Biological Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles and Their
ApplicationinPhotocatalysis ................................... 213
SomaDas
10 Mechanistic Aspect of the Dye Degradation Using
Photocatalysts ................................................ 247
SoumyaBiswas,SaikatGhosh,SuparnaMaji,SoumyadiptaDas,
SubhrojeetSinghaRoy, RahulBhattacharjee, PriyaMitra,
SumiraMalik,andAbhijitDey
Chapter 1
Dyes and Pigments: Interventions
and How Safe and Sustainable Are
Colors of Life!!!
Sushma Dave, Jayashankar Das, Bhoomika Varshney, and V. P. Sharma
Abstract We are fond of varied colors and they are strongly bonded in our life. In
most cases, even a child looks eagerly for colorful toys, bottles and with passage
of time desire to have attractive textiles to psychological imprints for colorful life
with individual perceptions. Thus, dyes and pigments are integral part of our civiliza-
tion and documented since prehistoric days. They may be classified as natural and
synthetic, application or solubility based with continual efforts to have best combi-
nations. There is growing demand as well as concern over the adverse implication of
synthetic colorants on both the consumer, environment, ecosystem and thus need for
safe, nontoxic, sustainable coloring alternatives have increased multifold for varied
applications in food additives, cosmetics, textiles, pharmaceuticals, packaging, auto-
mobiles, defense sectors, etc. They may be amine, nitro, Sulfur based azodyes, or
others with established reports on usage at levels above than the permissible regu-
latory limits. The usage of bacterial and fungal biobased pigments is increasing
gradually due to advantages over the synthetic pigments. They are preferred because
of simple culturing, pigment extraction procedures, ease of scale-up, and economic
viability in less time amidst few limitations. Liposome-dependent innovative path-
ways may be potential to meet the demand of next generations and developing
cost-effective, environment-friendly biobased products with economical feasibility
in a time bound manner. For effective decision-making in terms of market share, it
is necessary to address market intelligence, consider Covid-19 or similar impacts
for assessing the market trends, forecast, and human behavior for comprehensive
scientific mapping. The strict implementations of updated holistic, industry-driven
standards with compliances to international norms are vital from safety and quality
S. Dave
Department of Applied Science, JIET Group of Institutions, Jodhpur, India
J. Das
Valnizen Healthcare, Vile Parle, Mumbai, India
B
B. Varshney · V. P. Sharma ( )
CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1
S. Dave and J. Das (eds.), Trends and Contemporary Technologies for Photocatalytic
Degradation of Dyes, Environmental Science and Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08991-6_1
2 S.Daveetal.
perspective. We must strategically solve environmental issues faced by the current
markets as a challenge and safeguard the environment for future generations.
· · · · ·
Keywords Colorants Dyes Innovative Pigments Regulatory Sustainability
1.1 Introduction
The pleasure of seeing a rainbow is awesome and with knowledge we understand that
it is a meteorological phenomenon which is result of reflection, refraction, and disper-
sion of light in water droplets leading to a wonderful spectrum of light appearing
in the sky. The multicolored circular arc is sufficient to create thrill with colors
from nature to artificial colors of life. These are important as they impact our deci-
sions during the purchase of an item and create attraction while purchase in market.
Marketing icons and branding experts have taken advantage of our cognitive thinking
for specific products (Masters 2005). Several colorants of natural or synthetic origin
provide a shade or tint to items ranging from textiles to packaging materials and even
camouflaging the material scientists have helped to formulate new colors through
nanomaterials, designing, and tools of innovation. They affect on human health,
environment, and even personality interpretation. The acceptability of consumable
items is generally perceived by our senses for texture or taste. All synthetic dyes and
pigments are chemically not stable and pose poor bioavailability.
The acceptability of consumable items is generally perceived by our senses for
texture or taste. All synthetic dyes and pigments are chemically not stable and pose
poor bioavailability. Color plays an important role and it is dependent on age and
individual perceptions for selection of food and clothes. Man has been using varied
range of natural colorants originated from both animals and plants in different sectors
like textiles, food (annatto curcumin, cochineal), painting, packaging, cosmetics
(henna, catechu), pharmaceuticals (saffron, rhubarb), etc. In view of the increased
popularity of eco-safety and health concerns, environmentally benign and nontoxic
bio-resourced colorants are material of choice (Yusuf et al. 2017).
In 1856, while attempting for synthesis of quinine in respect to treatment of
malaria, accidentally the synthetic dyes, mauveine were prepared from aniline. This
was discovered by William Henry Perkin and thereafter several new combinations of
dyes were developed and used in different sectors like foods, pharmaceuticals, and
cosmetics. Synthetic dyes also known as coal-tar dyes because they were made from
the byproducts of coal processing (Gürses et al. 2016a).
Colorant is coloring materials and coloration matter and includes pigments and
dyes but both are different from each other in chemical composition, function, and
properties. Pigments alter the appearance and scattering of light and they are usually
dispersed in substrates for applications. They retain particulate structure throughout
the coloration process (Index 2017).
Dyes are colored fluorescent substances imparting color to a substrate through
absorbance of light. They are commonly soluble and its process of application
1 DyesandPigments:InterventionsandHowSafeandSustainable… 3
Table 1.1 Colorants of
Basic dyes Acidic dyes
natural origin. Some common
dyes for staining Safranin Eosin
Basic Fuchsin Acid Fuchsin
Crystal violet Congo red
Methylene blue
destroys the crystal structure (Pachade 2020). Market demands of natural dyes are
expected to increase by $5 billion by 2024 (Arizton 2019).
Scientifically, synthetic colors are not always safe and regulatory requirements
pose the necessity to assess the suitability. This necessitates monitoring using analyt-
ical equipments, spectrophotometers, to ensure the safety, efficacy, compatibility, etc.
of a colorant in food, beverages, plastics, photography, printing, ceramics, cosmetics,
and other product ranges. Few antioxidants found in food, vegetables, fruits are
colored with positive health effects and rendering protection from diseases like
cancer. Colorants may be classified according to their structure, source, color, and
solubility or application method. Two main categories are established according to
solubility: dyes and pigments. The major types of dyes and pigments are mentioned
in Table 1.1.
1.1.1 Ancient History of Uses of Dyes
Mauviene dye was prepared from sea snail, Bolinus brandaris (Cova et al. 2017), and
indigo blue Indigofera tinctoria (Adeyanju and State 2011). Dyes, e.g., picric acid,
eosin, fuchsin, oil red, malachite are synthetic organic compounds that are hydro
or oil-soluble and they may be found in cosmetics such as skin care products or
toiletries. Pigments may be insoluble and they remain in particulate form, and they
are mainly employed in toothpastes or decorative make-up. Since the prehistoric era
color clothing was done using extracts of botanical sources-plants, trees, roots, seeds,
nuts, fruit skins, berries, lichens, or from animal sources viz crushed insects, molluscs,
etc. (Rivers and Revolution 2007). Pigments for paints were obtained from colored
minerals (haematite which are mostly based on iron oxides) earth digging converting
to fine powder and mixing into a crude binder Clay (Hradil et al. 2003). Charcoal from
burned wood provided the early forerunners of carbon black pigments. The Egyptian
Prussian blue color has chemically the structure of iron (III) hexacyanoferrate (II).
In textiles and ceramics of India, the usage of mordant’s or fixing agents started to
give metallic look of copper, tin, chromium, and others (Fox 1999).
The pigments may be incorporated through dispersion process into products viz
paints, printing inks, and plastics (Pct et al.). Plant pigments viz chlorophyll is
the dominant natural green pigment and depict significant role in photosynthesis
in plants, and thus vital to our civilization. Generally, synthetic dyes are manufac-
tured from organic moieties (Montero 2015). Prior to discovery of synthetic dyes
