Transition Metals (Periodic Table Of The Elements)

2010·13.6 MB·English

by  Monica Halka, Ph. D., And Brian Nordstrom, Ed. D.

PERIODIC TABLE
ELEMENTS
OF THE
Transition
Metals

PERIODIC TABLE
ELEMENTS
OF THE
Transition
Metals
Monica Halka, Ph.D., and
Brian Nordstrom, Ed.D.
TRANSITION METALS
Copyright © 2011 by Monica Halka, Ph.D., and Brian Nordstrom, Ed.D.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Halka, Monica.
Transition metals / Monica Halka and Brian Nordstrom.
p. cm. — (Periodic table of the elements)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-7371-9 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4381-3401-7 (e-book)
1. Transition metals. 2. Periodic law. I. Nordstrom, Brian II. Title.
QD172.T6H35 2011
546'.6—dc22 2009054139
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editions, any errors or omissions brought to their notice.
Text design by Erik Lindstrom
Composition by Hermitage Publishing Services
Illustrations by Dale Williams
Photo research by Tobi Zausner, Ph.D.
Cover printed by Sheridan Books, Inc.
Book printed and bound by Sheridan Books, Inc.
Date printed: September 2010
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgments xii
Introduction xiv
Overview: Chemistry and Physics Background xix
1 The Scandium Group 1
Th e Astrophysics of Scandium and Yttrium 3
Discovery and Naming of Scandium and Yttrium 4
Th e Chemistry of Scandium and Yttrium 6
Th e Rare Earth Connection 7
Scandium and Espionage 8
Scandium Strengthens Aluminum Alloys 9
Technology and Current Uses of the Scandium Group 10
2 The Titanium and Vanadium Groups 12
Th e Astrophysics of the Titanium Group: Ti, Zr, Hf 14
Discovery and Naming of Titanium, Zirconium,
and Hafnium 16
Th e Chemistry of the Titanium Group 17
Titanium in the Aerospace Industry 21
Zirconium in Aluminum Alloys 23
Hafnium Can Replace Silicon in Transistors 24
Technology and Current Uses of the Titanium Group 25
Th e Astrophysics of the Vanadium Group: V, Nb, Ta 28
Discovery and Naming of Vanadium, Niobium,
and Tantalum 31
The Chemistry of the Vanadium Group 32
Reducing the Size of Particle Accelerators 36
Triniobium Tin in Superconducting Magnets 37
Technology and Current Uses of the Vanadium Group 39
3 The Chromium and Manganese Groups 40
The Astrophysics of the Chromium Group: Cr, Mo, W 42
Discovery and Naming of Chromium, Molybdenum,
and Tungsten 43
The Geology of the Chromium Group 45
The Chemistry of the Chromium Group 46
Chromium and the Magnetism of Stainless Steel 50
Tungsten’s Use in Munitions 52
Discovering the Hazards of Chromium in Drinking Water 54
Technology and Current Uses of the Chromium Group 55
The Astrophysics of the Manganese Group: Mn, Tc, Re 56
Discovery and Naming of Manganese, Technetium,
and Rhenium 59
The Chemistry of the Manganese Group 62
Technology and Current Uses of the Manganese Group 67
4 The Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Groups 68
The Astrophysics of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 71
Discovery and Naming of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 74
The Iron Age 75
The Chemistry of Iron 77
The Chemistry of Cobalt 80
Cobalt: The Distinctive Blue 81
The Chemistry of Nickel 83
Technology and Current Uses of Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 84
The Platinum Metals 85
The Astrophysics of the Platinum Metals: Ru, Rh, Pd,
Os, Ir, Pt 86
Discovery and Naming of the Platinum Metals 90
The Chemistry of the Platinum Metals 92
Technology and Current Uses of the Platinum Metals 92
Palladium and Cold Fusion 93
5 The Copper Group 96
The Astrophysics of the Copper Group: Cu, Ag, Au 99
A History of Coinage 100
The Chemistry of Copper 103
The Chemistry of Silver 105
The Chemistry of Gold 106
The Rush for Gold 107
Hard-Rock Mining: The Environmental Costs 108
Technology and Current Uses of Copper 110
Technology and Current Uses of Silver 111
Technology and Current Uses of Gold 111
6 The Zinc Group 113
The Astrophysics of the Zinc Group: Zn, Cd, Hg 118
Discovery and Naming of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 119
A Famed Mythology 120
The Chemistry of Zinc 120
The Chemistry of Cadmium 123
The Chemistry of Mercury 124
Environmental Mercury Risks 125
Technology and Current Uses of Zinc, Cadmium,
and Mercury 126
7 Conclusions and Future Directions 129
Speculations on Further Developments 129
New Physics 130
New Chemistry 131
SI Units and Conversions 134
List of Acronyms 136
Periodic Table of the Elements 137
Table of the Elements Categories 138
Chronology 139
Glossary 147
Further Resources 167
General Resources 173
Index 179
Preface
S
peculations about the nature of matter date back to ancient Greek
philosophers like Th ales, who lived in the sixth century b.c.e., and
Democritus, who lived in the fi ft h century b.c.e., and to whom we
credit the fi rst theory of atoms. It has taken two and a half millennia for
natural philosophers and, more recently, for chemists and physicists to
arrive at a modern understanding of the nature of elements and com-
pounds. By the 19th century, chemists such as John Dalton of England
had learned to defi ne elements as pure substances that contain only one
kind of atom. It took scientists like the British physicists Joseph John
Th omson and Ernest Rutherford in the early years of the 20th century,
however, to demonstrate what atoms are—entities composed of even
smaller and more elementary particles called protons, neutrons, and
electrons. Th ese particles give atoms their properties and, in turn, give
elements their physical and chemical properties.
Aft er Dalton, there were several attempts throughout Western
Europe to organize the known elements into a conceptual framework
that would account for the similar properties that related groups of ele-
ments exhibit and for trends in properties that correlate with increases
in atomic weights. Th e most successful periodic table of the elements
was designed in 1869 by a Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev. Men-
deleev’s method of organizing the elements into columns grouping ele-
ments with similar chemical and physical properties proved to be so
practical that his table is still essentially the only one in use today.
viii
PPrreeffaaccee ix
The Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table
of the elements in the late 1800s. (HIP/Art Resource)