Table Of Content—
TRANSFORMING
Michael
Balich^
J.
ETHNOBOTANY FOR THE
NEW
MILLENNIUM'
ABSTHAC/r
In the several decades, the science of ethnobotany has evol\ed from a discipline primarily concerned with
})ust
making among
lists of useful [>lanls in a particular geographic region or an individual tribe, to a multidisciplinary
endeavor focused on understanding the relationshij) between plants and [>eople. Ethnobotanists are involved in proj<»cts
ranging from conununity level germplasm conservation to multinational biiMliversily prospecting. One result of the
renewed intert'sl and activity in ethnobotany has been the increased public awareness of this brancli of biological
science. Several projects utilizing the conlemporar)' ethnobotanical paradigm arc discussed, including in-situ germplasm
conservation in the western United States, ethnobotanical market surveys in Mexico, the management and use of Sahal
palm resources in Mexic(», (piantitalive studies in the Neotrop>ics. and ethnopharmacologieal studies linked to drug
development in Samoa. Thi* Belize Ethnobotany Project's midtidisciplinary a[»proach to the study and conservation of
traditional medicines and the development of an ethno-biomedical forest reserve in Belize arc also reviewed. Contem-
porary ethnobotanical studies have value not only for the research questions they address, but as a way of catalyzing
awareness of the value of biological diversity and support for its conservation among a l)r(>ad range of peoj»le.
Thr term etbnobolany was proposed western United was one
in a lee- States, also of bot-
first llie first
ture by John Harshberger to a{)j)ly to the study of anists to investigate tlie cultural signifieanee of
"plants used by primitive and aboriginal people plants to indigenous people through bis fieldwork
." (Anonymous, 1895). This initial concept of (Palmer, 1871, 1878). Prior to tbe above-mentioned
. .
etbnobotanlcal investigation was typified in a paper end(»avors, other investigators studied use of
llie
by Waller Fewkes (1896), "A Contribution to plants by North American Indigenous peoples, of-
J.
Elbnobolany," in whicli be wrote of tlie work of his ten focusing on tbe medicinal values that lln^se
student G. Owens, wlio initiated a study on tbe conferred. Ford (1978) calculated that a total of 904
J.
fi)ods and food resources of tbe Hopi Indians. In studies bad been pul)lisbed on native North Amer-
ibis wbieb was published after Owens's lean ethnobotany before 1977.
i)aper,
Fewkes
death, wrott^ about their collaborative en- In tbe past several decades, the nature of eth-
deavurs, presenting a list of tbe conunon names and nobotanical investigation bt^gan to chatige, becutn-
uses of several dozen fi)od species, and stating, ing more focused on studies of the relationship be-
''I
simply wish to call attention to tbe interesting field Iween plants and people in tbe broadest sens(% and
of ethttobotany which the Hopi Indians furnish the employing multidisciplinary perspectives. Exam-
ethnologist. Tliis work reflecMs the style in which pies include the study of Berlin ct al. (1974), which
—
early ethnobotanical studies were undertaken combined botanical, linguistic, and utilization in-
compiling of ciMumon and Latin names of formation, and that of Schultes and Hoffman
lists
plants used by an indigemous group. which united ethnimtedicine and phyto-
(1973),
EUorts j)r<*vious to that time were carried out un- clHMnisti7. The emergetue of ethnobotany as a mul-
der tbe heading of "aboriginal botany," a term tidisciplinary science, springing forth from foun-
its
eoiru^d by Slev<Mi Powers (1873-1875) to incdude dation in systematic botany, has resulted in
fcfcall iorms of the vegetable world which the aborig- interesting and important research (juestions that
used
ines m(Mli<'ine, food, textile fabrics, orna- are being addn^ssed. This '*new" ethnobotany links
fi>r
Edward who
ments, etc." L. Palmer, a botanist diverse ilisci[)lines, such as anthropology, botany,
made
comprebensive descripti(»ns of the flora of the rnitrition, ecology, conservation, eeonorm'cs. and
am Boom,
grateful to l^rian Robert A. Bye, Javi<'r Cahailero, Paul Cox, Edelmira Linares, Steven Smith, and
^ 1 Jr.,
who
Daiiiela Soleri for providing nie witli information on their researcli. lliank the traditional healers have collaborated
I
mv
with in the Belize Ethnttbotany Project and alloweil ine to ^ive voice to their endeavors. Rosita Arvigo and C»regory
my
Shropshire iA \\ CAuA Tropical Kesearch Foundation have been valued companions in Belize, and we are grat<'ful
many
to our Iriends and supporters of this project. Jay Walker was verj' kind to prepare Figure I, as was Elizabeth
Pecchia typing the mamiscript.
in
^ Director and i'liilecohi^) Curator of Economic Botany, The New York Botanical Garden, Institute of Economic
New
liotany, Bronx, York 10458-5126, U.S.A.
Ann. Missouri Bot. Card. 83: 38-06. 1996.
Volume Number
83, Balick 59
1
1996
Transforming Ethnobotany
phamiacology, in a way lliat generate^s new ways of changes in tlie soeioeconoinie and/or biophysical
thinking and a style of scholarship. Work(M*s in environment.
iiew^
much
this i'wM also recognize the need to take a Sol(Mi and Smith (1995) investigated the results
more active role in ad(h'essing important issues of of conserving two Hopi folk varieties of Zea rnays
USDA
human such germplasm program and by
society as hio(hversity conservation, L. in a (ex situ)
food shortage, and the developmtnit of new medi- traditional farmers They tested three hy-
(in situ).
Ex
cines. Contem[)orar}^ elhnobotanists are also raising potheses: ''1) situ consen'ation of populations of
concerns about the ethical implications of their re- a maize folk variety results in significant changes
—
search endeavors for example, who should share to those populations; 2) TIkmc iwv no significant
in benefits of new^ discoveries such as ukmH- differences between populations of a maize folk va-
tlu'
cines foods from plants (Boom, 1990; Cumiing- lit^ty maintained by H()j)i farmers tiulay; and 3)
<»r
Then^ between
ham, 1993; Axt ah, 1993). They an^ also forging are significant differences a folk va-
et
maintained by farming househohls
closer ties with goveniment and private sector re- riety in situ to-
1
and same maintained
search groups working develop new food, drug, <lay the folk variety ex situ
to
hy an conservation program." Working
and institutional
en<M-gy resources. Orn^ impoilant aspect of this
measured
renaissance in the field of ethnobotany has been with two traditional corn varit^ties. they
significant changes in morphological characters
the increased level of public interest in this sub-
Through documentaries, movies, ^uch as anther color, glume color, glume bar, plant
ject. ti^h^vision
height, and central spike length. They concluded
magazine and
articles, radio intervi<*ws, tlu re-
^
that, in terms of meeting the needs of traditional
search of ethnobotanists is being us<m1 to illustiate
concern
and agriculture, the greatest for traditional va-
the importanc(^ of biodiversity conservation.
its
"may
conserved using ex technology be
rieties situ
in promoting objectives proposed by Syslem-
th<*
chang(\s during conseiTation resulting from ge-
atics Agenda sev^ms obvious that cuiTcnt tlu^
2()()(),
it
mnic compared
as with genetic I'he
shift
researc-h topics In ethnol)otany can attrat:t the at- drift.'''
collected the second stM^nuMl
to hyi>oth(^sis
tention of imi>ortant constituencies whose thinking ''^^^^ t<'st
to indicate that tlu^e were no diflcrences between
we
wish
infiuence.
U)
Zeu mays maintained
[)opulatInns of a folk variety
This paper will highlight examples of re-
llit*
by contcmporar)' Hopi farmers. Based on their data.
search undertaken by contemporaiy
activiti(*s eth-
h()w<we.. llu-y m^ilher accepted n.n n'ji^cted the hy-
sun.inarize several papers pre-
n()l)()taiiists. It will
instead. con.l.Hled thai further re-
^""'^
sented a recent me.-ling of the Society for P'"^'*^^''^
at
search would be required. The third hynotliesis,
rL^.conomi•c rL?soItanv .t1fiat4 piovi• d1e e^ xampl1es olr act.-ive * ^'
'
same
between
suggesting significant differences the
and ethnobotany
field- laboratory-ori<Mited projects.
folk variety cons(*r\^ed in two diff<M-cnl ways, was
as well as the author^s eflorts in Belize.
accepted. Despite the technical difficulties in test-
hypotheses was
ing these clear that invarialile
tlu'
it
CONSKKVATION
Gt:KMI'I.ASM maintenance of material utilizing situ consigna-
e.v
tion mctlnHls nearly impossible and thai the
is tvv(»
Recently, concern has been expr<»ssed that ex
conservation strat<'gies yield difh*nMit results, de-
may
germplasm consenation be
situ not sufficient
manding
a reconsideration crop genetic
of re-
for {)reserving the genetic integrity of selected crop
Work
and
sources. c*)nservation goals, assumj)tions.
specn'cs or [hv ph^hora of landraces cultivated by
.„„]
^^,^.i^ .^^ ,1,.,^ l^^^j^^ ^1^^^,^ |,y g^^i^j^j 5,,^;,),^ ;,,_
Crop found
traditional peoples. plant relatives in
corporal ing the ethnobotanical perspective into
the wild are also at risk, litis (1971) suggested that germplasm
conservation, is clearly in the forefront
in situ consenation was an important adjunct for am
of efforts presf^ne crop g<M7nplasm and will,
t(» I
A
consenation crop combination
ex of plants.
situ
help reshape a great deal of the
^.^rtain, fiiturt
now
oi both strategies is s(mmi as desirable, in order on
think in" this topic,
maximum
amount
ensure preservation of the of
to
Ex
consenation
g(Mietic diversity. situ activities
MaIIKKT
Sll^DIES
have trone far beyond the intention of senin^r only
crop brefulers; such materials an* s(Mm as valuable and and
Linares By(* (1987) [heir i-olleagu^^s at
for supporting low-input traditional agricultural the Jardfn Botanico, Universidad Nacional Auton-
systems and insuring their capacity to recover from oma dc Mexico, have carried out exhaustive sur-
natural disasters, as well as restoring the g(Mietic veys of market plants in Mexico since the 198()s.
diversity of crop varieties in traditional systems in studies, mostly focusing on nuMlicinal and ed-
I'heir
areas where this diversity has bet^n lost due to ible plants, have involves work with traditional
1
7
60 Annals
of the
Garden
Missouri Botanical
healers, uiedical doctors, IumIj vendors, fanners. Tahlr 1. P(TrtMila^<* of usi^ful species (in all calegories
and specified) per lieclare plot to the iruligenous groups stiul-
botanists, edncators, local prottioters.
licaltli
Linarcs and Bye (1987) conipanul nuulicinal herbs ^™-
=^=
and Mexico
sohl in the rtiarkets of central noillieni
Percentage of useful
those sold the southwcsteni United States and
to in
tree species from
gnmp
foinid local ptoplc plants folk "eoni-
tliat inl(» hidigenous group
inventor)' sites
common
plexes'^ of specMes that share namt*s, mor-
Ka'apor 76.8
pliological and aromatic characteristics, as well as
6L.H
'fenih^
known
nses. For example, the c^omplex in this geo-
ho
Chile a 78.
graphic region as ^'hirrha anfs^" (M^mpris(Ml several
48.6
l*anare
genera {Tagetes Artemisia Pimpinella ami
L., L., L.,
Source: Prance (P^B7)
et al.
Illiriuni L.), all with tin* characteristii- odor of anise.
One
observation from this study that each of the
is
four eomph^xes of plants investigated was "labeled »i
95%
w
and
tree sp<'cies of the individual trees
w
by choosing an individual plant species consid(M(ul u
..i. *i •• • among
^ utilized. Balee conlniuedi .tihis worki .i
Itie
I-
the most val1 uabl1 e within tIhe compl1ex. Each partic- v r d in
' ' Ra * apor aiuii ^lr emhi e' lr n(iians oir nrazili, and nooin
be
ular ""label" phuil tendtMl to sohl far outside of j- u
' ilat. er st. udiedi .tihe i>anare oir \VrenezucMia; .tihe results
I
natural range, and local plants were often sub-
its /n ino^^x
^ summari-zed» • t- i IvoO.
'^ are in lahi li e i (rrance et. ali..
,
, The
sliluted during times was unavailable. la- ^'
it -yihei•r concli usi* ons i* ndii-<*al. e a particul^ ar needi rtor
„ I
. .
beled complex was
plant for the 'iiierha anfs^^ n
ZJ/i^f- consening r -r t
' pli ant, lamihes, suchi as ali mae, l^ecy-
*
I
. , m
eles lucida Cav. Tn this study the authors sug^gested n\
,i
-^ Itiiidaceae*, Lhrysobi alianaceae, andi Malipighi iaceae,
. .
that plants categorized as such are considered most a .i* v
^ r
'. that. an* utiIiz(Mii ext. ensi• veli y ir>y »titiese tour indig(*-
,
complex
effective, wh(^n^as tlu^ otln'r plants in the
nous groups, as well as the terra firme forest, in
are given secondary status.
which most of the useful species These stud-
oc(*ur.
Using results o( Linares and Bye and similar /. *r
c r
^ '• ^'^ Wf^re .tihe hrst. at*.tempt to quantity *tihe vali ue ol
,. ^
studies, t^he staf^.f^. of t,he JI ard,i.n rB*otd.ni. co ,has b, ei^n
the forest to Indigenous p<'opl(^ and thus argue for
able implement public education nro";rams ^
to
cons<M'vat.•ion ibasedi on .tihe p(Tcent*ag(M)lr speci• es
Its
aimed , . . .
at incn'asing the level of botanical literacy.
used
locallv.
Each weeks m
year, sptnial are st4 aside to focus on
^\()rking in Tambopata, Peru, with iiK^stizo pco-
\
medicine, and individual up
Iradiliiuial h<»alcrs set
ni ii^ ^^ /irwv>
piie, Inllips andi i/entr)" (IW.ni)\ proposedi a now
* 1
stalls in the garden to advise the public on the us<»s
method
quantitat for ethnobolanical studies.
of me<licinal plants. Tlu-re an' also special work-
ti irr
r
' Ihey s*tudii- edi .tree pli ot»s i• n seven dilierent. lorest
*
.
shops on mtulici.na.l . of M<*\ico g(*ared toward
[)laiils r/
^r*
.types in a .tot. ali ot 0.1i hi ect.ares, r amiti y use vaiiu(*s
'
. ,.
.
those interested in alternative medicine. In addi-
were cahulated constmr-
for plants t^mploytnl for
ti<»n, the gardi'ii pnimotes the use of edible plants r
,- r
^ tion, in comnn^rce, foodi, .tecihnoliogy, andi medicine.
*
, . .
Mexican , One was n
of origin. pn)ject a series of Km*-
ni ir
^ iUtsi• ng .tihe same diat. a set., liillips and» Ueiitiy
1
1-
1 .
on
tures the botany, history, culinaiT preparation, /innoi\
rill 11 (lVv.5!)) ipies.t*ionedi whi et.hi er .i age r t.ihe m• lror-
th(^ oi
-^
^
and^
other aspects of fuhl)le greens, both
nutritit)!!,
mant had any on his/her knowh^lge of plant
cfitH't
wild and cultivated, fhe j)ublic was invit(Ml to sam-
use. They found that in sonn' use categories, sucii
and
pie these species, a publication with botanical
r
.i r»i
r
r 3^ nuMlicn• iali pli ant lore, ti ihuliik oi the n• iiormation
tlit^
, „
informati. on and . was . , The
nH'ip<'s issued. staff of the
held by oId(T people, and suggested areas
is that
Jardfn Botiinico used ethnof)0tany communicate
to
such as this should be main thrust of ethno-
tb<*
imixirtant messages about biological
(liversitv. n
Its
^ li )o,lani• caii st, udii- es andi conservati• on ^ ^Oit.iiier
- ei toils.
.' Y
. .
and
utilization conservation, to the public. m c m*
ai
^ s»tudjent*s • *tihi• s helidi, suchi as Migueli Alexi• adies and
Ana
IrtMic Balis, are currently uiuh^rtaking fichl-
ETHNOUorXNY
QirANTTTATUL:
work that us<»s the quantitative approach in etli-
seems
nobotany. apparent that a quantitative ap-
It
The
was
quantification of ethnobotanical data
more
proa<'h will allow ellinobotanists to question
Chacabo
fusi undei'taken in a studv of the Indians
precisely fon^st inventoiy, economics, forest man-
of Amazonian Tiolivia (Boom, 1087). This was a ma-
agement, market
studies, or oilier topics.
much
jor towanl a more rigorous methodology
st<']>
where approach
a statistical ccnild l»e utilized. Ktli-
Mana(;kmfnt
Rksoiiu.f.
360
(botanical studies of species of vascular
iK
known
plants by the Cliacaln) identified uses for Caballero (1994) studi<'d the use and manage
305 sptH'ies. In a one-hcclan^ plot, 78.7% of the ment o{ Sahdl Adans. (Arecac<*ae) among the Yue-
Volume Number
83, Balick 61
1
1996
Transforming Ethnobotany
Maya
atec of Mexico, ail example of a contornporaiy worked to ensure that a sio;nifleaiil poilion of roy-
study of the relationship betweM^n plants and peo- earned from
alties sales of these eorni>ounds
tlie
pie. Sabal is a multi-use palm that has served as a will be returned to tlie Samoan peoph\ His foun-
source
of eonstrue!i(»n material, firewood, food, (Seacology Foundation) has
<Iation helptnl raise
medicine, and magic. CahalhM'o discovered
that funds to protect 64,()()() acres of tropical fon^st by
some
traihtional uses of the trees had disappeared creating four village-owned and -managed
r(^serv(^s.
(magic, medicine), were declining (broom Altliough most mo-directed pharmacological
i)tliers
etl
making, poles, and while others
f<Miees), p<'rsist(nl prospecting in the has not retunuHJ benefits
|)asl to
(thatch, fuel) or increased (handicrafts). His studies helped
native p<M)ple or to cons<^rve the forest eco-
show(M] the greatest pressure on the resource was systems where the source plants are found,
is
it
some
for thatch, wlien^ 350()-r>()00 Sahal leaves, dear
that ethnobotanical studies such as those of
requiring 2S0-125() trees (ranging from juvenile to Cox and liis stud(^nts have done much to create a
needed house
adult). are to thatch a in tlu^ n^gion. new model lor this type of rest^arch. A for-profit
The impoHance
of indigenous resource manage- Shaman
Pharmaceuticals, was
entity. Inc., f(unid(Ml
ment way maximizing
as a of future supi>lies of with a corporate philosophy that creates mecha-
palm
leaves evident from study, as are the
is tliis nisms ensure both short- and long-term
to bt^riefits
dangt^rs posed by ovt^-cxploitation of the resource.
to traditional peopl(% and promotes conser\ation of
Anderson
(1988) studied Eutcrpe oiJeerrarcd Mart. (orest ecosystems in the areas the company gathers
another palm commonly used Amazonian
in Brazil, The
plants through healing Fon^st Consen'ancy, a
I
and found
that a single family receiv<'d U.S.
and
loundation established
suj){)orts.
it
$15,532.86 from
sah^s of (63.19f of
a^*ai fruit its
annual cash income), and U.S. $2,916.79, or 1.8%
1
ErnNohirrAN^
Tin-: Bki.i/k Puoji-'.ct
of income from sales heart. Because
its of [)alni
{)alnis arc so important to tropical forest dwelling
The was
Rcli/.e Etlin<»botaiiv Project initiated in
[)(H)ple. this [)lant family is a prirnan candidate for sac
1988 endeavor
ollaborative betw(MMi the
Ix
a:
additional resource manag(Mn*'nt studies.
iAwl Tropu-al Foundation, Belizean
R(^searc]i a
and
non-goverrmiental organization, the Institute of
PirvKM
\<;kiti(:\!. Piu)sj't:(:'ri%(; Economic Botany The New" York Botanical Gar-
of
The
den. j)rincipal purpose of project has been
th<*
Cox (1991) estimated that least 50 pharma-
at
to invcMitory the ethnobotanical diversity of Bcliz(%
ceutical drugs been discovered from ethtio-
liav<'
a country with significant tracts of intact lorest as
botanical leads. Tlu^st^ include digoxin used to treat
as nine cultural and ethnic groups.
w(*ll diff(n-(Mit
from purpurea
atrial fibrillation, isolated Digitalis
Dozens expeditions since 1988 have resulted
of in
TE., a pl1 ant. <*nipl1 oye(!1 n• i t.1tie ei• gt1it. eent.t1i ciMi»luiy .to '
some _
specimens.
collections of plant
ov<m*
,*U>()(>
accmmdation
treat dropsy, an of fluid resulting from
.1- 509^ with ethnobotanical descriptions. Dunlicalc
hI eart. lrai-1lur(\ AA more recent discoven was r vi• n-
ot ' •
hvvu deposited
^P<''"i'"«-"^ ''^ve in tlir l.,-rl.aria ..f
and used
.•ristine vinhlastin,-, bolli to Irrat I.Io.hI
C
die Belize (College of Agriculture, the Belize For-
cancers. Isolated from Cdthdninlhus roscus
(E.)
New
estrv Department. The York Botanical Garden,
Don. which has been used Caribbean
in tlu^ to treat
US
and the National Herbarium, A databas(* main-
'*sweet bloo(!'' (diabetes).
tained Tlie New York Botanical Garden be
will
Coxs Samoa at
ethnobotanical research in has led
computer Be-
dislribulcd several
to facilities w^ithin
to the discovery o( a {)otent anii-viral comj)ouud.
The
Project has gathered traditional knowl-
lize.
(h^ived from HomaJantfius nutans
prostratin.
(^/uill.
edge graciously by over two dozen
{)n)vid<Ml tradi-
Cox
identified this plant in 981, after learning
1
hcah^rs of Mopaiu Yucatec, Kekchi, Maya,
who
about from several Inhalers used to treat »i*'ii^i'
it it
When 'adino. Garifuna. Creole, East Indian, and Men-
Cancer
yellow fever. tested at the National
iiouitc (h'scent.
Institute, an extract ol this plant e^xhibited {khvciTuI
HIV The ellinobotanical in\cntorv has been combined
against (Gustafson
in vitro activity et al..
1992). The National Cancer Institute now vvith the production of an annotated checklist of die
is |>]an-
and based on
ning to license prostratin to a drug comj)any for fiowc^riug plants ferns of Belize, col-
ethnobotany
Cox lections of the project, prt^viously
additional study. also identified a topical anti-
inflanunatoiy from Erythrina laricgata E., utilized available herbarium sptn-imens, and relevant liter-
Samoa The With dozens
by healers skin inflammatiou. alurt^ the of of taxoiHHuic spe-
in treat iii[>ut
ti)
aclive component, a navanone, now being devel- cialists, the cluH'klist will help (h^termine the com-
is
oped by SluMing-Plough Corjjoration. Cox has also [)relien6ivcncss of cthnobotaincal survey.
th<'
62 Annals the
of
Garden
Missouri Botanical
Number Number
Uses
of vs. of Collections
25
AAAAAA
20
U)
0)
A Momordica charantia
(A
15
Aloe vera
0)
10
E Agonandra
sp.
3
5
I i I i i I i
^
N o
^
CO (O a> lO 00 T—
1^ C\i
cu CO CO CO Tf
C\J CNJ
Number
Collections
of
Figure 1. Gra|>li ^Icrnonstralin^ llie ini[)()rlance of imilliplr itit<'rvirws in investigating local uses of economically
Numher Numher
important plants. 'Hie of Collci'tions represents the nuniher of people interviewi'd and the of Uses,
the different ways in which each species is used. With each of the species represented in this graph, new uses are
many 40
IxMUg deserilx-d afler inlerviews with as as
still jieojile.
THK CONCEIT CURVE The
A. TIIK Ml LTIPLE USE of uses, especially in ibe area of dermatology.
or-'
Agonandra
species, Miers ex Benlh. an
final sp.,
is
liigorous etiuiobolanii'al study detnaiuls accurate
example known
of a plant thai not eonunonly
is
sample
delerrninatioii appropriat*' imin-
ol size,
tlie
thnuigliout eommunily and appears liave few-
llu;
t<»
and number
bor of c'olleciions, of peopb^ inler-
^r uses, focused on ''male" probl(Mns. also has a
r It
viewedI, . ordIer ensure I 1 n• iiormali• on on
in lo tlial tlie
more i- • i- -i - • r» i-
limitedi distru)ution Belize than other
tlie
\\\
Many
a specific plant complete. pre-
r<'laliv<dy
is
two
taxa, primarily in forests. Ont^ point illustrated
vious ethnobolani<'al studi(\s hav<' d<'pended on one
eune
by the niultiph^ use for these three plants
is
number
or a small of collections as basis for
tlie
number
the large of interviews/eolleetions neees-
A
and
th(Mr information conclusions. mathematical
maximum amount Many
saiy !o ol)tain the of data.
relationship can be develojunl, based on the con-
contemporary
ethnobt)tanieal studies,
ifielu<ling;
cept of the spet;ies area curve (Campbell
et al.,
ones based on
that utilize statistical metlio<ls, are
1986), to assess the appropriate numbiM* of collec-
number
a small of inter\iews/collections
jxm" spt*-
tions or interviews.
some
cies. For plants, such as those with specialist
Figure graphs between
the relationship
1 tlu*
may
ust^s, a few collections from traditional healers
number
of different uses of three specu\s v(msus the
may
be sufficient, while more widely used plants
ninuber of people iiit<'rviewed. bastnl on 42 inter-
dozen
recjuire several inlerviews/collcclions Iwfon*
views August and September 1994.
in lntervi<^w<M^s
extant information can obtained.
th<^ total b<'
were, for the most part, not traditional healers, but
eldi'rly ptM)ple willing to discuss the uses of ten
STUDIES
VAEUA'l'ION
B.
plant species. Three species have
bet^i
sel(M't<Ml to
knowledge One
illustrate the type of obtained. nu^lhod of asceilalning the value non-
of
The
iip|)er curve in Figure 1 illustrates the uses timber fon^st products in the tropical fon^st to
is
Momordica
of charantia T.., a vining herb ct)mmon inventory a cli^arly defined an*a and t'stimat*' the
to miuli of the Caribbean ami elsewher^^ The initial economic value of the species found there. Pt^ters
20
13 inlei*views record use^s, but 5 additional uses et al. (1989) W(*re th(* first to document the com-
were documented l)y the 39tli intervi<'w. This curv<* mercial value of non-timber foresl products founil
illustrates a pattern for a "poweiful {)lant" (Balick, within a hectan» of forest in the P<Muvian Amazon,
1990), one that is wichdy known with multiple uses. but they did not includ<^ medicinal plants in their
Tlu^ middh* curve is for Aloe vera (L.) Burm. F., a inventory. This aspect was t^valuated later in Beli;
&
known
c(»inmonly plaut with a nu)re focuse<l series (Balick Mendelsohn, 1992). From two separatt*
Volume Number
63
83, Balick
1
1996
Transforming Ethnobotany
Tablf 2. Medicinal plants harvested from a 3()-year-old valley forest plot (no. in Cayo, Belize.
1)
C omnum name name U a
St'ienlific se
Bejuco verde Agonandra raremosa (DC].) StandL Sedative, laxative, "gastritis," analgesic
Calawalla PIdehodium devumantim (W'illd.) Smith Ulcers, pain, ''gastritis," chronic in(h-
J.
geslion, high Itlood pressnre, 'Van-
>i
ce
r
China root Smilax lanceoUita Blood tonic, fatigue, "anemia," acid
I,.
stomach, rheumatism, skin condi-
tions
Coc'otnecca Dioscorea sp. Urinary tract ailments, bladder infec-
tion, stoppage of urine, kidney slug-
gishness and malfunction, loosen
to
mucus coughs and
in cohls, febri-
fuge, bl(X)d tonic
Contiilx Aristolochla trdohata T. Flu, colds, constipation, fevers, stom-
I
ach ache, indigestion, "gastritis,"
parasites
^ Uses listed are based on disease concepts recognized in Belize, prhnarily of Mayan origin, tliat ma) or mav not
commonU
have equivaUnil statt^s in Western methcine. For example, kichiey shiggishness is not a condition recognized
common among
by Western-trained |)hysicians, but a com|)hunt people in this region.
is
plots of 30- and 50-year-ol(l forest a total of 308.6 tainahle harvest. However, assuming the curn^il
and 1433.6 kg [)er hectare (diy weight) of medi- age of the forest in each plot as a rotation h^ngtli,
cines, respectively, whose value could be juflged wf calculated an estimate of the present value of
l)y
local market forces, was collected. Local herbal harvesting plants sustainably into the future using
=
V
{)liannacists and liealers purchase and process me- the standard Faustman formula: R/(1— e
"),
R
dicinal [ilants from herb gatherers and small farm- where is tlir net revenue from a single fiarv<*st
ers for an average price ol U.S. S2.80 per kg, sug- and r is llu^ real interest rate; is the Irngtli of tlu*
t
gesting that harvesting the medicinal plants from a rotation in years. Given a 30-year rotation in j)lol
h(*ctare would yield the collector betwet^n $861- and the present value of medicine $726 per heel-
1. is
A
$4014 of gross nnenue. Subtracting the costs re- are. similar calculation for plot 2. with a SO-year
ban $3327
(juired to est, process, and ship the plants, the rotation, yielded a pn^s<^nt value of p(;r beet-
5%
net revcimc frotn clearing a hectare was calculatctl are. Fbesc cah^ilations assume a interest rate,
to be $501 and $3054 on (^ach of the two plots These estimates for the harxest of medicinal
&
(Balick Mendelsohn, 1992). The of plants plants comjKire favorably with alternative land uses
lists
and tluMr uses are presented in Tables 2 and 3. in the region, such as milpa (corn, bean, and
Not enough information available to under- s(]uash cultivation) in Guatemalan rainforest, which
is
stand cycle and regeneration time needed yichhni $288 luMtare. Other commercial pHnl-
tb(^ life jx'r
for each thus we cannot comment on the nets, such as allspice, copal, chicle, and construc-
s[)<x^ies,
frequency and extent of collection involved in sus- tion materials, in the plots could he harvested and
hom
Table 3. Medicinal plants harvested a 50-year-old ridg<\ ri>rest phtl (no. 2) in Cayo. lielize.
Common
name name Use
Scientific
DC &
Negrito Sunaruha glauca l)ysent<'ry diarrhea, dysmenorrhea, skin condi-
and Imwel
tions. .>U>mach tonic
Gumholimlx Ban swuiruod stomach cramps.
rsera h Anliprurili<'. kidiic\ infections, di-
)
(U)
Sarg. ureti(*
CJiina root Smilax IdtHvohita U Blood tonic, fatigue, ""'anemia." acid stomach, rheu-
matism, skin comhtions
Cocomccca Dioscorea Urinary ailments, bladder infection. stop[)age
sp. tract
kidney sluggishness and malfunction,
of urine, to
loosen mucus couglis and febrifuge,
in c<»lds,
blood tonic
64 Annals the
of
Garden
Missouri Botanical
added lo the total value of tlu' medicinal plants. for ingredients from rainforest species will result.
some
Thus, this study suj5g<*sttMl that protection of This could eoiitril)ule to preservation of tropical for-
manage
areas of rainforest as (extractive n^serves for medic- est ecosystems, but only //people can^fuUy
plants appears to economically justified. the production or extraction of the [)lant species
itial Ik* It
seems that a periodic liarvtvst strategy is a nndistic that arc primary ingredients in these products. In
and sustainable method of utilizing the forest. addition to using methods of sustainable extraction
Rastul on our evaluation of forest similar to the sec- from natural ecosystems, small farmers will culli-
ond, SO-hectare plot analyzed, would appear vate some species for sale to both local herbalists
tliat
it
one lould luu*vest and clear one hectare per yt^ar and conuncrcial companies. To address the latter
indcfmilely, assuming that all of tlu^ speci<*s found possibility, our work in the Belize Ethnobotany Pro-
in each plot would regcMicrate at similar rates. More jvv\ has inchuled a program with th(^ B(*lize College
some
than likely, howtner, species, such as liursera of Agriculture (BCA), Central Farms, to l<*arn liow
slrnaruhd Sarg., would become more dominant to propagate and grow over 24 different plants cur-
(I..)
Hugh
in the forest ecosystem, while others, such as Dios- rently utilized in tratlitional medicine,
become BCA,
corva L., could ran*. 0'Bri<Mi, Professor of Hoilicullure at has co-
This analysis is based on cuncnt market data, ordinated this effort, which has included tlu^ genen
and estimates of the worth of the forest could Achras L., Aristolochia L., Brosimurn Sw., Bursera
change with lo(*al market forces. For example, if Jacq. ex L., Cedrehi P. Browne, Croton L., Jatropha
knowledg(* about tropical lu^rbal medicines b(*- Myroxylon L.f., Neurohiena R, Br., Piscidia L,,
I-.,
widespread and Psidlum Senna Simarouha
i-oines mort* their collection in- L., Millt»r. Aublet, Snii-
cn^ases, prices for sourct* plants would fall. Simi- lax L., Stachytarpheta Vahl., and Sirirtrnia Jactj.
more consumers became aware
of the
larly, if
pol.-ntial of soMir of tlirsr iuf<Iicinps, or the cost
if
„ KSTAm.LSllMKNT OK AN KTIINO-mOMKDICAl, KOHKST
of conunercially produced pharmaceuticals became
,,,-.,-,», .^
demand
too great, for herbal medicines could in-
<r(\ise, substantially driving up {irices. Finally, de- The concept of the extractive reserve as a tool
many
struction of the tropical forest habitats of of for conservation has received a great deal of atten-
Many
thcse important plants could increase their scarcity, tion over the last f<'w years. of thest* reserves
driving up local prices. Tliis scenario has already are tracts of f(irest where non-timber products ran
been obsened in Belize with some species, indi- be harvested by local individuals or groups who
eating that the value; of tn»pical forest for the liar- th(M)retically have a stake in the preservation of the
vest of Mon-limber lort*sl products will increase rel- forests bIol(»gical integrity (Allegn^tti, 1990). Prod-
ative to other land uses over time, as these forests ucts such as rubber, Brazil nuts, copal resin, plant
b ecome more and
scarce. construction materials, foliage
oils, fruits,
fib<M*,
house and
plants for the florist trade, other items
have been selected harvest and marki;ting from
for
DEVKl.OPMKNTOF A I'OKKST-BASED TKADITIONAI
C.
Amazon, Ameri-
extractive reserves in the Central
MKDICINK INDUSTRY
ca, Asia, and Africa. Numerous perspectives on
One
of the primary dilcitunas in tluMlevelopmc^nt these resource's, both positive and ru^gative, have
of an extraction program non-timber fon^st prod- been highlighted recently (Browder, 1992; Ryan,
f(»r
ucts has been the long history of overcollecting and 1991).
and and
resultant decline of resources, c^xpoil pro- In June 1993, a r)000-acn\ lowland tropical for-
cessing of raw materials at c<Miters and countric^s est, government-owned n^serve was (established for
far from thtMr origin. Rattan is a classic example of the extraction of medicinal [)lants, teaching, and
people in prinlucing countries, who are closest to ap[)renticeship, with financial support from The
the resource, receiving the smallest percentage of Healing Conservancy and The Rex Foun-
Forc^st
the profits derived from its matmfacture into high- dalion. This particular forest, in the Yalbak region
&
quality furniture (Dransfield Manokaran, 1993). of Belize, contains a broad diversity of mcMlicinal
many
In Central America, as elsc^where in the developing plant species. Also within borders arc spe-
its
world, locally developed brands of plant-derived cies of animals, iiu-luding jaguar, peccary,
tapir,
now
medicine are bcung mark<»ted with a value- howler monkeys, and numerous other manunals,
added component (production and packaging) and
re- birds, n^ptiles.
A
maining in the country of origin of the raw material. unicjue feature of this reserve that has
is
it
As more of these products appear, based on the been dc^signaled for the extraction of mc^dicinal
demand
success of the original endeavors, greater plants used locally as part of the primai^ health
65
Number
Volume Balick
83,
1
Ethnobotany
Transforming
1996
Taldf use inforrnalion (((llcck-d
4. Cre(lil)ililv ralinii for
example
Hypotbelical
Cat ego Ral uig
r)'
observed use Dr. Smith saw lliese Orlngnya cohtirir leaves lieing
Collector iist!s or dirt'ctlv 1
used as thatch in BeH/e.
Maya Don Smith he uses these
Informant uses or directly observed use 2 Iiealer, Elijio, told Dr.
riptT anidldgo roots for snakebite.
3 Kthnographer on the Sioux reservation heard
Informant beard/knew from a furtlier source tliat tlie
Sioux used Aster for menstruation problems.
tlie
4 As the IKH teaching collection, where uses will
Use reported from the literature for
and summari/ed on
be gathered from literature
llu'
the use label.
Common knowledge 5 As. for example, a collection of a <ulti\ar of coffee
from coffee planlalion with a repotled use as a
a
stimulant beverage.
New down any
unknown 6 botanist neglected to write inior-
Credibility of use information field
malion al)out his informant.
mctbodology. Conlt^inporaiT studies are incoi[)orat-
Accordingly, type of (Extractive
care lu^twork. this
most poweifid of niob-cular
resene was classified as an "etbno-hioinedical ing llic tecliiiiqiies
f(»r-
and computerization the analysis
lenn Inteniled pliarrnacob)gy in
est reserve'' (Balick et al., 1994). a
One
convey a sens(» of ibe interaction between people. of ellinolKttanical data. recent dt^veb)pinent be-
to
New
York Botanical
plants, and animals, and tlie liealtb care system in nig iiiipl(MiUMil*Ml at Tlie (iar-
(NYBC) Economic Botany (lEB)
Institute of
region. (Kmi's
tlu E
One objective of the vt^scrve (^tlmobotanical the establisbment of a "credibility rating" lor in-
is is
and ecological n^search, designed to identify the formation that collected on plant utilization. In
is
plant resources contains and develop ap|)ropriate the past there was little opportunity to evaluate the
it
technologies for thiMr sustainable extraclion. David quality of data based on the way w^as collected
it
When
Canipl)cll and his students from Grinn(dl College during cthnobolanical studies. extracting in-
(lowa. U.S.A.) have constructtul ecological transects formation from the ethnob<»tanical literatur<N is
it
in selecte<l parts of the reserv^e to serve as long- randy (dear whether the investigator actually ol>-
Some mon-
tenn study sites. of tlu^se transe<'ts will the uses discuss<ul, or
servi'd or particii)aled in
itor extraction, while others monitor changes in llu whether the data were collected during a casual
have
Ethnobotanical inventories
native v(^getation. younger person
walk through the forest with a wlio
begun economically important plants
to catab)g in remembers specific uses of the plants by one of his
Cayo
suiTounding Dis-
the res(^rve, as w*dl as in the
To address the crechbility rating
this,
f^jj-^.i^^.^i-^.
Other scientists will be invited to participate
Irict. dable 4 be incort)orated into the
[)resenled in will
in these studies. database N\UC. Data with a rating of have a
at 1
many ethno-bio-
be years before this
will first
It being accurate, whib' those
of
certaii.ty
,^.^^^,„.j|,i^.
meihcal reserve can be judged a success or
forest -
authoritative.
^^.^,^ ^.^^^.^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ j^^ ,^^^^
^^
A work must go dev(d-
failun\ great (b^al of into
and
mis an experim<Mit, wi cer-
lougn rating
Alll thi is
:h
managi'tnent plan and finding the finan-
o{)ing the
an attempt begin
revised over time, to
tainly is
1h' it
human Imjdement band
and resources ust
to
cial it.
and
data collected
slandardi/e (luality of
to tb(^
pressures suiTounding the reserve, specifically log- .
•. i-Ti-*
^ evali uat. e ndiative credibility.
'.
its
. , ,. - 1 • 1 and
ging and, agricultun% as w(dl as soci<»logical 1
be-
There r<dationship
a de<'p, often spiritual
is
/
could endanger the long-term ex-
political factors,
r.-
• .i .»•
tween plants and ix'opli e, in iboth itraditumali s<'ttings
! ,. , H,,iiwever, • i> 1- ,t1berc
istence of the reserve. in litdize is '
These
and among more acculturated societies. re-
it.
much
optimism and support,
a e:reat deal of of it at
can be elucidated through ethnobotan-
D laliotiships
f me-
t,he grass roots b1 ^vel1. Rest^rves tor protf(H'ft-ing t
v
.
and used increase ,bu. ilogicali literacy
studies to
'^^'^^
been established
plants rec:ently liave
iciiial
el
among community, evidenced
the non-scientific as
ensure
nationwide
across India, in a effort to tlu
by work Mt\xico, Samoa, and Btdize. If the most
in
supply of imi)ortanl s[KHdes.
lliese
be
conservation arc
crucial issut^s of biodiv<'rsity to
CONCI.I SION addressed we need improve the ed-
succ<'ssfiilly,
ti>
comnumicate the im-
The discipline of elbnolxttany currently evcdv- ucational systt^m's ability to
is
underpinnings and portance of science, not only to people In the Unit-
ing both in philosophical
its
66
Annals
the
of
Garden
Missouri Botanical
ed States hut aroinid the world. essential 1986. Quanlitalive ecological inventory on terra finnc
is to
It
and
build on the value of systeinatie kiumltnlge and viirzea tropical forest on ific Hut Xingu, Brazilian
Amazon. 369-393.
Hrittonia 38:
way
link with the world
in a thai inspires the
it
Cox, A. 1994. The ethnoholanical approach drug
P. to
lar<i;esl possible eonstitueney to appreciate the im-
discovery: Strengths and 25-41
limitations. Pp.
in
I).
J.
&
purlanet* of hiodiversity ami the need for con- Cliadwick Marsh Ethn(»holany and
its (editors), the
J.
New &
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tool
<-"'">i"^''^'". \ 1^^- Kthics Re-
Ell,noLiol..,Moal
meeting
for ll.Ls .„al, a.ul will cc.ntinue to l,e the ^^.
ir.
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e.r .\7'///.
