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Transformative Invasions: Western Post-9/11 Counterinsurgency and the Lessons of Colonialism Moritz Feichtinger, Stephan Malinowski, Chase Richards Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, Volume 3, Number 1, Spring 2012, pp. 35-63 (Article) Published by University of Pennsylvania Press DOI: 10.1353/hum.2012.0000 For additional information about this article http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hum/summary/v003/3.1.feichtinger.html Access provided by UniversitÃ¤tsbibliothek Bern (6 Feb 2014 05:20 GMT) Moritz Feichtinger and Stephan Malinowski Translated by Chase Richards Transformative Invasions: Western Post-9/11 Counterinsurgency and the Lessons of Colonialism Theshootingsideofthebusinessisonly25percentofthe troubleandtheother75percentliesingettingthepeopleof thiscountrybehindus. —BritishGeneralGeraldTempler,Malaya,19521 HavingsomeonewhocanspeakArabicislikehavinganother infantrybattalion. —U.S.GeneralJohnMattis,1stMarineDivision,Iraq,20082 Oneofthegreatestsurprisesinthedebateovertheso-calledNewWorldOrderinthe finaldecadeofthetwentiethcenturywashowtheconceptofempirewonanaston- ishingnewrespectability.Theword‘‘empire,’’whichfordecadeshadpossesseda negativeconnotation(especiallyinAmericanusage),increasinglytookonapositive resonance—andnotjustamongjournalists.3Fortheoristsandpolicymakers,the notionofa‘‘goodempire’’onceagainbecamethinkable:empireasamulticultural, flexibleformofpoweroperatingacrossvastdistancesthatcouldpromote(ifnotguar- antee)humanrights,development,order,andprosperity.4Inordertojustifytheuse offorce,however,thisconcept‘‘goodempire’’requiredboththedevelopmentofa suitablenewformofwarfareandareformulatednarrativelegitimationofthiswarfare.5 Inthepost–ColdWargeopoliticalenvironment,Americandebatesoverforeign interventionsnolongerpivotedaroundtheoldbattlelinesofinternationalismor isolationismbutincreasinglyaroundthepoliticallysharpenedconceptofgenocide prevention.IntheUnitedStates,thebeliefthatmilitaryoperationscouldpreventor haltgenocidesledtoanastonishingallianceofleft-liberalhumanitarianinterven- tionismwithneoconservativeexpansionism.6Ontheonehand,neithertheColdWar northeconventionalwarsofthetwentiethcenturyprovidedusablemodelsforthe executionof‘‘transformativeinvasions,’’whichafter9/11appearedtohavebecomethe norm.7Ontheotherhand,referencestohumanitarianobjectives,humanrights, Americaninterventionism,andUnitedNationsmandateswerenotenoughtomake senseofthisnewformoftransformativeinvasion.Instead,thisnewformofwarfare, combininghumanismandMachtpolitik,hadhistoricalrootsinadifferent,rather unexpectedplace:intheguerillawarsoflateEuropeancolonialism,whichtookplace fromthelate1940sthroughtheearly1960s. 35 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:40 PS PAGE35 ThegoalofthisessayistoanalyzehowAmericanandWesternEuropeanarmies haveappropriatedtheoperationalandconceptualarsenalofEuropeanlate-colonial warfareandadjustedittosuittheircurrentpoliticalobjectives.Thisreceptionand adaptationoflate-colonialapproachestohowwarisfought,weargue,takesplace bothintheoperationalconductofcurrentWesternmilitaryinterventionsandinthe portrayalofthesewarsbeforeanationalandinternationalpublic.Identifyingthe structuralparallelsbetweenlate-colonialwarsandcurrentWesterninterventionshelps toexplainwhysomeoftoday’smostimportantmilitarytheoristsandplannersfind themselvesattractedtothestrategiesdeployedbyEuropeanpowersduringthelate- colonialwars. Inthedecadesince9/11,theformulaof‘‘learningtoeatsoupwithaknife’’(often attributedtoLawrenceofArabia)hasbecomeawatchwordfortheadaptationof Westernarmiestothealtereddemandsofwhatatfirstwascalledthe‘‘GlobalWaron Terror’’butwhichisnowmorecommonlyreferredtoasthe‘‘LongWar.’’8Inaddition tohomegrownAmericantraditionsoriginatingwithpresidentsTheodoreRoosevelt andWoodrowWilson,theideaofconductingmilitary-ledmissionsagainstbarbarism, injustice,andunderdevelopmenthasrootsinEuropeancolonialism.9Proponentsofa systematicappropriationofEuropeanlate-colonialwarexperiencescriticizetheinade- quatestrategy,tactics,anddoctrinesofconventionalWesternarmiesincombatwith guerillaarmiesinThirdWorldregions.Theycallforaninstitutionalandpolitical learningprocess,inwhichWesterndemocraciesintegratetheirmilitary,development, andpropagandamachineriesintoinnovativeapparatusescapableofbringingalasting endtoinsurgencies—lessthroughfirepowerthanthroughdevelopmentprogramsand aid.Theseapproachestocounteringguerillafighters,firstdevelopedandtestedduring late-colonialwars,appeartotheircontemporaryadvocatestobethemostmilitarily andpoliticallyplausibleoptionscurrentlyavailabletoWesternstates.Theadvocates ofthisintegratedapproachenvisionademocraticutopiaofawarthatisnotwaratall butinsteadamilitary-flankeddevelopmenteffortinunderdevelopedareas.Insum, althoughWesternstatespresenttheircurrentwarsinnewhumanitarianbottles,the dregsfromtheoldwineofthesearchforcolonialorderremains. Onemightsupposethatfewelementsofthefive-hundred-yearhistoryofviolent Europeancolonialconquest,occupation,expulsion,exploitation,andmurderwould seemreadilyavailableforreappropriationbydemocraticstatesinthetwenty-first century.10Yetifwenonethelessobserveastoundingresonancesbetweenpost-1945 decolonizationwarsandcontemporarywarfare,thisisbecausebothoftheseformsof warareverydifferentfrombothpre-1945interstatecontinentalwarfareandfromthe previouslyestablishedpatternsofcolonialwarsuptothatpoint.Specifically,thewars currentlywagedbytheWesternpowersrehabilitatetheconceptofcounterinsurgency thatwasfirstdevelopedduringthelate-colonialwars.Theintegratedpolitical-military strategyofantiguerillawarfareaddressedoperationalandpoliticalproblemsthatalso ariseincontemporaryconflictsbetweendemocraciesandguerillaarmies.Inboththe late-colonialwarsandthecontemporary‘‘LongWar,’’internationalanddomestic publicsfollowtheinterventionistpower’sconductofthewarwithacriticaleye:the formerprimarilywithrespecttocompliancewithputatively‘‘universalmoralstan- dards,’’whichthelattersupplementwithattentiontothecostsoftheoperation. 36 Humanity Spring2012 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:42 PS PAGE36 Duringthe1950sand1960s,Westerncolonialpowersdevelopednovelstrategies forwagingwarinculturallyforeignzonesofthepost-imperialperiphery.Though militarilythesestrategiesbuiltonolderapproachesassociatedwithearliercolonial wars,whatdistinguishedthisnewmodeofwarfarewasthefunctionalintegrationof destructionanddevelopment,ofmilitaryandcivilforcesforthelastingtransformation ofsocieties.Newdoctrinesandstrategieswereinventedforscenariosinwhichthe adversarywasnotanopposingarmybutrathersegmentsofthepopulationitself.In thesescenarios,thestylizedexperienceofWesterntechnicalsuperiority,accordingto whichsmallgroupsofEuropeansoldierscouldslaughteratenfoldnumericalsuperi- orityofAfricanorAsianfighters,wasuseless.Thesescenariosinvolvedafrontierbut almostneverafront,demandedareliableseparationofciviliansfromcombatants,and madethe‘‘winning-over’’ofsegmentsofthecivilianpopulationvital.11Thesewere, finally,scenariosinwhichacriticaldomesticpublic,ahighlydevelopedinternational mediaenvironment,andthestillfreshmemoryofthehorrorsofWorldWarII conspirednotonlytosethighmoralstandardsconcerningtheapplicationofphysical forcebutalsotoencourageskepticismabouttheeffectivenessofsuchefforts. Operatinginpost-heroicsocieties,Westernsocietiesafter1945demandedthatleaders engageinelaborateeffortsto‘‘sell’’andlegitimatewars.12Withinthecircleofthe colonialpowers,itwasdemocraticstatesthatfirstdevelopednotonlycapablepropa- gandaapparatusesbutalso,inthefinalphaseofcolonialruleafter1945,strategiesboth forseparatingciviliansfromcombatantswithinthecontextofwarfareandforoffering themprogramsforeconomicandcultural‘‘development.’’Inalltheserespects,the experienceoflate-colonialwarfareinthe1950srehearsedtheargumentsandlegiti- mationstrategiesforwarswagedbytoday’sdemocracies. Rarelyhasthatleadingmetaphorofpostcolonialstudies,thecolonialarchive,been sovisibleandaccessibleasinthecasepresentedhere,namely,thecontemporaryredis- coveryandadaptationoflate-colonialtechniquesofviolence,power,anddomination. Contemporarymilitaryleadersoperating‘‘amidstthepopulation’’facearemarkably (indeeddisturbingly)similarmissiontothatofthelate-colonialwarrior:toconstruct acivil-militarywarmachineusingacomplexcombinationofscholarlyguidance, developmentexpertise,andbothmetropolitanandlocalmilitaryforces.Theapologists ofcounterinsurgencydepictitasaformofwarthatminimizesviolencegenerallyand casualtiesspecifically,thatrealizeslastingimprovementand‘‘development’’forthe targetpopulation,andthatthereforeisnotreally‘‘war’’atall.Thecombinationof violence,scientificconsultancy,andcomprehensivesocialengineering—through whichtheenemyshouldnotbeannihilatedbutpersuadedandmodernized—seems especiallytypicalofdemocraticstates.SincetheendoftheColdWar,andespecially sincethepost-9/11interventioninAfghanistanandtheattackonIraqinMarch2003, thesecombatstrategiesandlegitimationparadigmshavegainedsharplyinimportance. Theisolationof‘‘drivers’’from‘‘spoilersofchange’’hasbeencentraltothedirectives thatGeneralDavidPetraeusissuedasSupremeCommanderoftheAlliedTroopsin Afghanistan:‘‘Separatereconcilablesfromtheirreconcilables.Identifyandreport obstaclestoreintegration....Identifyandkill,capture,driveout,orturntheirrecon- cilables.’’13Similarly,theFrenchdivisiongeneralandhistorianHenriParishas proclaimedthattheTaliban‘‘mustofcoursebepursuedandslaughtered,butsolelyit FeichtingerandMalinowski:WesternPost-9/11CounterinsurgencyandtheLessonsofColonialism 37 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:42 PS PAGE37 alone,withintheframeworkoflegalityandwithoutunnecessaryandindiscriminate violence.’’14Alas,today’stroopsfacethesamedifficultiesofdoctrinalinterpretation thatthelate-colonialforcesdidhalfacenturyago:howtodeterminethe‘‘necessary degreeofforce’’—thedefinitionofwhichappearsnowhereinthefieldmanuals.‘‘The FieldManualtellsuswhattoachieve,’’thecontemporarycounterinsurgencytheorist DavidKilcullenhasadmitted,‘‘butnotwhattodo.’’15Counterinsurgencydoctrines duringlate-colonialwarswerenotmorepreciseonthispoint,buttheobservationby thepublicathomehasbecomemoreseveresince.Ifmilitarynecessitystilldefinesthe ‘‘necessary’’degreeofforce,itisthemediahothouseofthehomefrontthatdefines the‘‘acceptable’’degreeofforce. Inclaimingacontinuitybetweenlate-colonialwarsandthecurrent‘‘humanitarian’’wars,weshouldhastentoaddthatthecontemporarybelligerentdemocracies donotthinkofthemselvesascolonialpowers,nordotheythinkoftheirwarsas colonialwars.Still,theoverallaimoftheWesternpowersistoincreasecontrolover economic,strategic,andpoliticalspheresandtobringnon-Westernersclosertothe West.ThefollowingobservationsbearprimarilyonAfghanistan,butsincethe2006 changeinstrategy(theso-calledsurge)theypertaininprincipletothewarinIraqas well.Atthesametime,thestrategicadaptationsdiscussedherearebroadlygeneral- izable.Asatype,the‘‘transformativeinvasion’’isalreadyinternationalonaccountof itsapplications;itisglobalonaccountofthehistoricalpointsofreferenceandthe markedlyglobalfocusofitsstrategies.16 TheStruggleforHeartsandMinds:TheLate-ColonialWarsofthe1950sand1960s InthecataractsofWorldWarI,alongsidetheEurope-dominatedworldorder,the Ottoman,Russian,Habsburg,andGermanempireswerewashedaway.Attheedges oftheseshatterzonesarosezonesofviolencethatwerenottobe‘‘pacified,’’oftenfor decades.17WhiletheBritish,French,andDutchcolonialempiresremainedintact (andindeedexpanded)after1918,independencemovementsbecamemuchmore dynamic.18ThefragilityofimperialcontrolbecameundeniableduringWorldWar II—thelossofSingaporeinFebruary1942isemblematic—andthenglaringafterthe endofthewar,whentheevolutionoftheEuropeanblueprintforpeaceintheWestern hemispherestoodharshlyatoddswithviolence-filleduprisingsincolonialterritories. WhilesomeintheEuropeancolonialestablishmentsoughttoretainorrestoretheir privilegesafter1945,theultimatelyunsuccessfulFrenchandDutchattemptstoreassert theirimperialauthorityinIndochinaandIndonesiademonstratedthatthetraditional modeofimperialrulewasnolongerviable.19Theconstantlygrowing,internationally connected,andmedia-conveyedpressureofAsianandAfricanindependencemove- ments,ontheonehand,andtheunambiguousanticolonialrhetoricofboththe AmericanandtheSovietsuperpowers,ontheother,madenewconceptsforsafe- guardingorreshapingcolonialruleunavoidable.20 Astheideaofretainingindirectinfluenceinformallyindependentstatesreplaced thehopesforcontinueddirectrule,imperialcounterinsurgencyhadtoberadically reconceptualized.21Insteadofaimingtoquashallindependenceefforts,thegoal becametoensurean‘‘orderlytransition.’’Suchlate-colonialcounterstrategiesdirected militaryforceagainstindependencemovementswitha‘‘revolutionary’’agenda,while 38 Humanity Spring2012 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:44 PS PAGE38 atthesametimeengaginginpoliticalandcivilreformswherebypotentialpostcolonial elitescapableofensuring‘‘continuity’’weretoberecruitedandsupported.Asociety- widepoliticsofmodernizationanddevelopment,intendedtosupersedeandreplace colonialrulethroughthetriadofdemocracy,prosperity,andmodernity,formedthe correlatetomilitaryforce,whichwouldorientitselfwithallthegreatervehe- mence—atleasttheoretically—againstinsurgents.This‘‘political’’approachto antiguerillawarfarewasdiscussedundertheumbrellaterm‘‘population-centriccoun- terinsurgency,’’orCOIN.22 Counterinsurgencyasastrategicmilitaryconcepthashistoricallydevelopedfrom positionsofpoliticalweakness.Theworksofclassicalcounterinsurgencytheory,which istosay,thecanonofdoctrinesonantiguerillacombatformulatedbetween1950and 1970,aroseinthefaceofaninvigoratedpostwarmanifestationofanticolonialinsur- rection,theMao-inspired‘‘people’swar,’’inwhichmoderntechniquesofmass organizationandmobilizationseemedtomixwiththeenergyofanantimodern fervor.23Justastheconcept‘‘insurgency’’describesaphenomenonthatunites elementsof‘‘rebellion’’withguerillawaryetatthesametimegoesbeyondthesum oftheseparts,soiscounterinsurgencyfarmorethanthesumofitsmilitaryproblem- solvingapproaches.24Astrikingcounterrevolutionaryeuphoriadistinguishesthe doctrinesandstrategiesofcounterinsurgencyformulatedinthedecolonizationphase fromolderconceptsofimperialpolicingandpacification.25 Perhapsbestcharacterizedbytheterm‘‘transformativeinvasion,’’thespecifictype ofwarfaredevelopedduringthelate-colonialperiodappliedasubstantialportionof itsmachinerynottodestructionbutrathertodevelopment.Bothintheperception oftheirstrategistsandintheeyesofthepublic,suchwarswere(andstillare)waged inordertocontainviolence,tocreatedemocraticandWestern-shapedsocieties,and toguaranteestability.Theconceptoftherestrictionofforceandthetightimbrication ofpacification,stabilization,anddevelopmentconferreduponthisformofwarfarea relativelyhighdegreeofacceptance,evenbeforethecriticaltribunalsofdemocratic societies.Warsofdecolonizationservedashothousesfortheinventionofeuphemisms appropriateforwarsoflong-lastingoccupationandtransformation.Political-juridical conceptslike‘‘stateofexception,’’‘‘mission,’’and‘‘intervention’’permittedahigh levelofmilitaryengagement,whileavoidingtheneedforparliamentarydebateor publicapproval,inawaythatwouldhavebeenmuchmoredifficultinaformally declaredwar.26TheAlgerianWar,duringwhichtheFrenchmilitarydeployeda conscriptforceofhalfamillionsoldiers,wasdescribedwithinofficialFrenchparlance notasawarbutas‘‘measurestowardthemaintenanceoforder’’—adesignationthat wasonlychangedin1999.27TheBritishwarinMalayayieldedcomparableconcepts. Thedesignation‘‘emergency,’’forexample,waschosennotleastbecauseinsurance companieswouldnothavecompensatedfordamagesincurredthereintheeventofa declaredwar.TheBritishalsodevelopedanomenclaturefortheirenemiesthathas sincefoundadoptionmanytimesover:afteritbecamecleartotheBritishthatthe originallyselectedterm‘‘bandit’’couldbeassociatedwithromanticnotionsofsocial rebellion,theyestablishedtheuseofthelabel‘‘terrorist’’forthecommunistguerilla.28 Thecorollarytothiswasthediscursiveconstructionofa‘‘civilianpopulation’’whose protectionwouldjustifymeasuressuchasforcedresettlement. FeichtingerandMalinowski:WesternPost-9/11CounterinsurgencyandtheLessonsofColonialism 39 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:45 PS PAGE39 TheMalayanEmergencyof1948–60wasandcontinuestoberecognizedasa textbookexampleofasuccessfulcounterinsurgencycampaign.29Althoughmartiallaw persistedontheSoutheastAsianpeninsulafortwelveyears,andthoughitsleader, ChingPeng,didnotsurrenderuntil1989,the(ratherweak)communistguerillaforces weremilitarilymarginalizedalreadyfrom1952onward.30In1960,withtheestab- lishmentoftheMalayanFederation,thecreationofamultiethnicanddemocratic postcolonialstateappearedasanexemplaryinstanceofdecolonization;fromthenon Malayawasconsidered‘‘thedominothatstoodstill.’’31Themilitaryapproachofthe British,orratherthecombinationofmilitarywithpoliticalmeansthroughcounterin- surgency,centeredon‘‘winningtheheartsandmindsofthepopulation’’—aphrase creditedtoGeneralGeraldTempler,thecommanderoftheMalayancampaign.32 Centraltothecampaign’ssuccess,accordingtoallsubsequenttheoristsofcounterin- surgencyoperations,wastheforcedresettlementincampsoflargeportionsofthe Chineseminoritypopulation,whichwashowtheBritishattemptedtosolvethecore problemofallguerillawars,namely,howtodifferentiateinsurgentsfromcivilians. AlthoughonemighthaveexpectedthatpostwarEuropeanswouldhavebeenleery oftheconceptofforced,concentratedresettlements,afunctionalandsemanticshift onthepartofcolonialofficialsenableditsreadyacceptance:thenegativelyconnoted conceptof‘‘thecamp’’wassimplyavoided,andinsteadonespokeof‘‘newvillages.’’ AlthoughtheNurembergTrialsandthecodificationofhumanrightshadpromised toestablishnewuniversalstandardsininternationalpolitics,Europeancolonial powerscreatedaparallelworld,specificallyintheformofcolonialcampsystemsand systematicexpulsionsinwhichnoneofthenewstandardsheldlegalforce.33Func- tionally,too,thesestrategicsettlementsfarexceededthemereconcentrationofahard- to-controlpopulation.Althoughsentriesandbarbed-wirefencesadvertisedthecore functionofthesesettlements,the‘‘newvillages’’werealsoconceivedasmodelsites foracceleratedmodernization.34Resettledciviliansweresupposedtodiscovera standardoflivingthatwouldexceedthatoftheirformersettlementsmanytimesover. Schools,infirmaries,playingfields,cafes,andsanitaryinfrastructurewouldwinover theinhabitantsoftheresettlementvillagestothesideofthegovernment.Inmany late-colonialsettings,urbanizationandresettlementmeasureswereadditionally combinedwithattemptstodeployarchitectureaswellascityandlandplanning towardthedirected‘‘modernization’’ofthesocietyinquestion.35 Thenewvillagesoflate-colonialwarfareinthe1950sarguablyconstitutethemost strikingsiteforstudyingthetransitionfromtheconceptof‘‘civilizingmission’’tothe conceptofa‘‘modernizingmission.’’36Intermsofbothcontentandstructure, attemptsatforcedmodernizationechoedthenineteenth-centuryrhetoricof‘‘civilizing missions.’’Whatmadethepost-1945military-enforcedeffortsatmodernizationa discretenewmodelratherthanmerelyaremakeofolderoneswastheintegratedcivil- militaryapparatus,thedemocraticambitions,andtheperformativeimperativebefore acriticaldomesticandinternationalpublic—withAuschwitzasthenegative,andthe UNasthepositive,reference.CommittedtotheuniversalistspiritoftheColdWar, thenewtheoriesofdevelopmentandmodernizationparadoxicallyseemedmostthor- oughlyrealizablepreciselywheretheywereflankedandfacilitatedbymilitaryforce.37 40 Humanity Spring2012 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:46 PS PAGE40 Thelate-colonialwarswerethuslaboratoriesfortestingthetheoreticalmodelofforced modernization.38 Outsideoftheresettlementcamps,too,theEuropeancolonialpowersdeployeda considerablearsenalofdevelopmentprogramsintheirstruggleforheartsandminds. Particularattentionwaspaidtowomenandchildren.Educationalcampaignsin colonialcontextswereneverendsinthemselves.Inthelate-colonialphase,state-run schoolsandeducationalprogramsaugmentedmissionary-runschools.39Alongwith theteachingofbasicknowledgeandskillssuchaswritingandarithmetic,theseschools tookspecialcaretoimpart‘‘modern’’valuesandattitudes:inculcatingindividualism, opennesstotechnicalinnovations,andskepticismtoward‘‘traditional’’socialstruc- turesandwaysoflife.DuringtheAlgerianWar,forinstance,theFrenchauthorities promotedliteracyamonggirlsasawaytorealignthecellulefamilialemusulmane, whichinturnwasregardedasthekeytothe‘‘modernization’’oftheentireAlgerian society.40Military-civildirectivesunapologeticallyexpressedthedemographicand biopoliticalgoalsofcolonialemancipationpolitics:‘‘Educationalpolicymustbe directedtowardgirlsasmuchastowardboys.Women’sdevelopmentiscrucial.Itisa conditionforalltrueemancipation.Itwillcontributetoreininginthegalloping demographicgrowthofthisland.’’41Thelate-colonialstateassumedanespecially benevolentdemeanornotonlytowardyounggirlsbutalsotowardadultwomen. Yetinthelate-colonialwars,inwhichmanyoftheindependencemovements countedaconsiderablenumberofwomenamongtheirranks,questionsofemanci- pationandthepositionofwomenbecameacentralarenafordisputes.42Colonial regulationoffamily,honor,andlegalcodeswasinmanyplacesperceivedasthe clearestmanifestationofforeigndomination.43Fortheorgansofthecolonialstate,on theotherhand,targetedattentiontowomendidnotsimplypromisetoheightenthe effectofpoliticalandsocialreforms;onthepropagandistichomefront,protecting colonialwomenfromtheirownsocietyservedasanillustrationofthehumanitarian aimsofcolonialwar.StageddeveilingcampaignsinAlgeriancitiesofferbutone exampleofhowthearmyofaWesterndemocracycouldcatertoanemancipationist politics.44Inthecontestedinteriorsofcomparabledecolonizationwars,too,women becameinanewwayvictimsofdirect,oftensexual,violence,butalsothetargetsofa wholearrayofstatecampaignsforreeducationanddevelopment,fromcoursessewing andchildrearingornutritionalcounselingtofashionshows.TheSectionsAdministra- tivesSpećialiseés(SAS)movedfrommountainvillagetomountainvillagedistributing thousandsofsewingmachines(andotherhouseholdappliances)inthenameofthe ‘‘modernization’’ofAlgerianwomen.‘‘Women’sclubs’’and‘‘solidaritycommittees,’’ notinfrequentlyledbythewivesofhigh-rankingcolonialofficers,werealsoactivein internmentandresettlementcamps.Organizedradioeveningsandfilmscreenings werelikewisepartofthe‘‘humanitarian’’strandwithinEurope’smostbrutallate- colonialwar.45 InKenya,theBritishauthoritiesdevelopedaparallelsetofpracticesasaresponse tothedisturbinglyhighproportionofwomenintherevolutionarymovementofthe so-calledMauMau.Undertheguiseof‘‘rehabilitation,’’theagentsofBritishcolo- nialisminKenya(whowereoftenfemaleChristianmissionaries)soughttoassistthe Kenyanwomen’spassage‘‘intomodernity’’byimposingnewformsofgenderrelations FeichtingerandMalinowski:WesternPost-9/11CounterinsurgencyandtheLessonsofColonialism 41 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:47 PS PAGE41 thatconformedtoidealizedWesternnormsofthetime:politicalabstinenceand concentrationondomesticdutieswithinthenuclearfamily.46Themottothatwas appliedtonotonlygenderandfamilyrelationsbutalsothereorganizationofthe entiresocietywasthesamethenasitistoday:stabilization.47Whereverlate-colonial officialstriedtotransform‘‘traditional’’societiespermanentlyandtosetthemona courseagreeabletoEuropeannorms,thefemaleportionoftherespectivesocieties constitutedthemostimportantleverfordoingso,atleastinthecolonialimagination. Suchgranulareffortsatlate-colonialsocialengineeringwereoftenembeddedin socioeconomicmasterplansforthetransformationofentiresocieties.Althoughthe exportboomunleashedbytheKoreanWarmadeitpossibletofinancetheconversion oflandlessChineseandsmallfarmersintoamobileruralreserveoflaborpowerin Malaya,similarplansforKenyaandAlgeriafailed.48Measuresfortheprovisionof work,whichonthegroundwerehardtodistinguishfromforcedlabor,andthe divisionoflandholdings,whichprivilegedEuropeansettlersandtrustedcollaborators ofthecolonialadministration,oftenremainedthesolerealizedformsoftheseambi- tiousplans.Nevertheless,thisconstitutesadecisivedifferencefrommostinterstate warsofthetwentiethcenturyandalsofromearliercolonialwarsinwhichcompre- hensivedevelopmentprogramswereneitherplannednorattempted.Aformofwarin whichsoldiersdistributechocolatetotheconqueredcivilians,inwhichgeneralsgrant creditsforsingle-familyhousesandpromotemodernpiecesoffurniture,mightbe hardtofindoutsideofthespecifichistoricalconstellationofthe‘‘transformative invasion.’’Suchplans—whichenvisionedtheinvitroproductionofmodernsubjects whofollowedWesternpatternsofconsumptionandculture—couldneverentirelybe realizedwithintheconstraintsofbitterlywagedlate-colonialwars.Allthesame,the effectsofforcedmodernizationand‘‘uprooting,’’stillsovisibletoday,havebeen enormous.49 Thelate-colonialwarsalsodrasticallytransformedtheself-understandingandself- portrayalofEuropeancolonialarmies.Fewimagesbetterillustratethedevelopment workofcolonialarmiesthanthefigureofmilitaryvehiclesrepurposedtoplowfields.50 Thesamecanbesaidofsoldiersandreserveofficerswhoactedasuniformedteachers ordoctors.Yetatthesametimeitwasindispensablefortheacceptanceofmilitary- flankeddevelopmentprogramstogivethemasclearlycivilianacharacteraspossible. Whilemembersoftheuniformedmilitaryperformedmanyofthese‘‘developmental’’ functions,everyeffortwasmadetoensuretheco-deploymentofcivilianpersonnel suchasmissionaries,nurses,volunteerdevelopmentaides,andNGOs. Thesenewsortsofcolonialagentswerenotonlytobefoundinpropaganda brochures;theyalsoinfluencedthestructureofthelate-colonialmilitarymachinery. Theygavebirthtounitsspeciallytrainedtotakeoverciviladministrativefunctions andestablishclosecontactwithrepresentativesofthelocalpopulation.Apartfrom thestrategicallymeaningfulattempttogainreliableinformationonlocalconditions, experimentswithformsofadministrationandlocalcommunitywereconductedata depthandscalethatprewarimperialrulehadneitheraspiredtonorrequired.51The furtheranceofregionalandlocalself-administrationtherebyoperatedbothasalegiti- mationstrategyandasahegemonictechnique,forthenewlyestablished rapprochementsweremeanttobringlong-termtiesintobeingthatwouldrender 42 Humanity Spring2012 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:48 PS PAGE42 militaryforceobsolete.MauriceChalle,commander-in-chiefoftheFrenchtroops duringtheAlgerianWar,neatlyencapsulatedthisalteredsetofprioritiesina1973 interview:‘‘Onewasfightingatthetimenotforcontrolofafewhectaresoflandor fortheconquestofaprovince,[butratherto]winoverthepopulation,andboth partiesofferedapoliticalfutureforthis....Thispoliticaloutlookinheredinlegal equality,theadvancementofMuslimstotheFrenchlevel—thingswhichhavenot beenachievedinthe130yearsofoccupation.’’52Justasthecolonialarmiesthemselves hadtoadapttheirformtothechangedrequirementsofthetask,sotoodidthewars oflatecolonialismleadtotheriseofanofficertypethatdifferedfundamentallyfrom themilitaryelitedeployedduringthetwoworldwars. Intermsofmilitaryexperience,thegenerationofofficerswhosedefiningcoordi- natesborethenamesBlitzkrieg,Stalingrad,El-Alamein,Midway,Dresden,and Hiroshimahadlittletooffertheasymmetricwarsoflatecolonialism.Forthewaging ofsuchwars,thisgenerationcoulddrawonlypartiallyonolderexperiencesfromthe historyofcolonialism;mostoften,ithadtoimprovisenewconcepts.53Todevelopa successfulcounterinsurgencyconcept,theseofficersemphasizedthearmy’saptitude forlearningandadaption,aswellasthefusionofcivilianwithmilitarycommands. The‘‘tigerofMalaya,’’GeneralTempler,becametheparagonoftheprudentlate- colonialmilitarycommander,amanwhorecognizedthepoliticalandmilitarychal- lengesattherighttimeandintherightplaceandthentooktherightstepstomeet them.54Atadeeperlevelofhierarchy,thecolonialpowersproducedanofficertype characterizedbyacompleteadjustmenttolocalconditionsandtherequirementsof counterinsurgency.Overthecourseofthreedecades,suchspecialistsoftenendedup ascounterinsurgencypractitionersandadvisorsnotjustoncebutrepeatedlyonvarious continentsinvariouscolonies,applyingthe‘‘lessons’’frompreviouscampaignsto laterones.TheBritishofficerSirRobertThompson,forinstance,acquiredexperience inPalestine,Cyprus,andMalaya,whichhethenpassedonasamilitaryadvisorin KenyaandlaterSouthVietnam.55Thiscounterinsurgencyexpertisealsopassed betweenarmies:FrenchofficerslikeRogerTrinquierandDavidGalula,whoemerged asstrategicmastermindsofthenewwarfareinIndochinaandAlgeria,wentonto serveasconsultantsfortheUnitedStatesaswellasvariousLatinAmericanarmiesand becamewidelyreadauthoritiesinthecounterinsurgencyliterature.56 Amongthemostremarkableinnovationsoflate-colonialwarfareandcounterin- surgencywasthehighdegreetowhichthisbodyofdoctrinedrewontheexpertiseof thesocialsciences.Eventhoughcolonialismwasmoreimportanttothedevelopment ofethnographythantheotherwayaround,andeventhoughthesignificanceofthe scholarlycontributiontocolonialpracticeshouldnotbeoverestimated,theeffortson thepartoflate-colonialofficialstorenewtheinterconnectionisnoteworthy.Plansfor transformingthecoloniesusedtheacademicethnographyandsocialsciencesoftheir daytocreatereadingaids,instructionsforsoldiersandcolonialadministrators,and legitimationcampaigns(bothinthecoloniesandonthehomefront). Theanticolonialinsurgencyin1950sKenyaengenderedperhapsthemostbizarre formsofmilitarizedsocialscience,wherebysociologicalpseudo-expertscameto exercisegreatinfluenceoverthecoursesofactiontakenbythegovernment.Social scientistshelpedtointerpretandtomakesenseoftheinsurgency;theyadvised FeichtingerandMalinowski:WesternPost-9/11CounterinsurgencyandtheLessonsofColonialism 43 .................18187$ $CH3 01-20-1209:45:49 PS PAGE43

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infantry battalion. —U.S. General American interventionism, and United Nations mandates were not enough to make sense of this . Field Manual tells us what to achieve,'' the contemporary counterinsurgency theorist .. nates bore the names Blitzkrieg, Stalingrad, El-Alamein, Midway, Dresden, and.

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