Table Of ContentToxic Cyanobacteria in Water
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Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water
A guide to their public health consequences, monitoring
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword viii
Acknowledgements x
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Water resources 1
1.2 Eutrophication, cyanobacterial blooms and surface scums 3
1.3 Toxic cyanobacteria and other water-related health problems 4
1.4 Present state of knowledge 6
1.5 Structure and purpose of this book 6
1.6 References 6
Chapter 2 CYANOBACTERIA IN THE ENVIRONMENT 9
2.1 Nature and diversity 9
2.2 Factors affecting bloom formation 15
2.3 Cyanobacterial ecostrategists 18
2.4 Additional information 23
2.5 References 23
Chapter 3 CYANOBACTERIAL TOXINS 26
3.1 Classification 26
3.2 Occurrence of cyanotoxins 37
3.3 Production and regulation 48
3.4 Fate in the environment 54
3.5 Impact on aquatic biota 57
3.6 References 59
Chapter 4 HUMAN HEALTH ASPECTS 69
4.1 Human and animal poisonings 70
4.2 Toxicological studies 75
4.3 References 84
Chapter 5 SAFE LEVELS AND SAFE PRACTICES 91
5.1 Tolerable exposures 91
5.2 Safe practices 95
5.3 Other exposure routes 100
5.4 Tastes and odours 102
vi
5.5 References 103
Chapter 6 SITUATION ASSESSMENT, PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 105
6.1 The risk-management framework 107
6.2 Situation assessment 110
6.3 Management actions, the Alert Levels Framework 115
6.4 Planning and response 120
6.5 References 124
Chapter 7 IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT PLANS 125
7.1 Organisations, agencies and groups 125
7.2 Policy tools 128
7.3 Legislation, regulations, and standards 132
7.4 Awareness raising, communication and public participation 133
7.5 References 137
Chapter 8 PREVENTATIVE MEASURES 138
8.1 Carrying capacity 138
8.2 Target values for total phosphorus within water bodies 140
8.3 Target values for total phosphorus inputs to water bodies 143
8.4 Sources and reduction of external nutrient inputs 144
8.5 Internal measures for nutrient and cyanobacterial control 151
8.6 References 157
Chapter 9 REMEDIAL MEASURES 160
9.1 Management of abstraction 160
9.2 Use of algicides 161
9.3 Efficiency of drinking water treatment in cyanotoxin removal 164
9.4 Chemical oxidation and disinfection 171
9.5 Membrane processes and reverse osmosis 174
9.6 Microcystins other than microcystin-LR 174
9.7 Effective drinking water treatment at treatment works 175
9.8 Drinking water treatment for households and small community supplies 177
9.9 References 178
Chapter 10 DESIGN OF MONITORING PROGRAMMES 182
10.1 Approaches to monitoring programme development 182
10.2 Laboratory capacities and staff training 186
10.3 Reactive versus programmed monitoring strategies 187
10.4 Sample site selection 188
10.5 Monitoring frequency 189
10.6 References 190
vii
Chapter 11 FIELDWORK: SITE INSPECTION AND SAMPLING 192
11.1 Planning for fieldwork 192
11.2 Site inspection 193
11.3 Sampling 194
11.4 Nutrients, cyanobacteria and toxins 198
11.5 On-site analysis 200
11.6 Field records 201
11.7 Sample preservation and transport 201
11.8 References 202
Chapter 12 DETERMINATION OF CYANOBACTERIA IN THE LABORATORY 203
12.1 Sample handling and storage 203
12.2 Cyanobacterial identification 204
12.3 Quantification 205
12.4 Determination of biomass using chlorophyll a analysis 211
12.5 Determination of nutrient concentrations 213
12.6 References 215
Chapter 13 LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF CYANOTOXINS 217
13.1 Sample handling and storage 217
13.2 Sample preparation for cyanotoxin determination and bioassays 220
13.3 Toxicity tests and bioassays 223
13.4 Analytical methods for cyanotoxins 231
13.5 References 236
Index 240
FOREWORD
Concern about the effects of cyanobacteria on human health has grown in many countries in recent years for a variety of
reasons. These include cases of poisoning attributed to toxic cyanobacteria and awareness of contamination of water sources
(especially lakes) resulting in increased cyanobacterial growth. Cyanobacteria also continue to attract attention in part because
of well-publicised incidents of animal poisoning.
Outbreaks of human poisoning attributed to toxic cyanobacteria have been reported in Australia, following exposure of
individuals to contaminated drinking water, and in the UK, where army recruits were exposed while swimming and canoeing.
However, the only known human fatalities associated with cyanobacteria and their toxins occurred in Caruaru, Brazil, where
exposure through renal dialysis led to the death of over 50 patients. Fortunately, such severe acute effects on human health
appear to be rare, but little is known of the scale and nature of either long-term effects (such as tumour promotion and liver
damage) or milder short-term effects, such as contact irritation.
Water and health, and in particular drinking water and health, has been an area of concern to the World Health Organization
(WHO) for many years. A major activity of WHO is the development of guidelines which present an authoritative assessment
of the health risks associated with exposure to infectious agents and chemicals through water. Such guidelines already exist for
drinking water and for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture, and are currently being prepared
for recreational uses of water. In co-operation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), WHO is
also involved in the long-term monitoring of water through the GEMS/Water Programme; and in the monitoring of water
supply and sanitation services in co-operation with the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The World Health
Organization supports the development of national and international policies concerning water and health, and assists
countries in developing capacities to establish and maintain healthy water environments, including legal frameworks,
institutional structures and human resources.
The first WHO publication dealing specifically with drinking water was published in 1958 as International Standards for
Drinking-Water. Further editions were published in 1963 and 1971. The first edition of WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking-
Water Quality was published in 1984–1985. It comprised three volumes: Volume 1: Recommendations; Volume 2: Health
criteria and other supporting information; Volume 3: Drinking-water quality control in small-community supplies. The
primary aim of the Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality is the protection of public health. The guidelines provide an
assessment of the health risks associated with exposure to micro-organisms and chemicals in drinking water. Second editions
of the three volumes of the guidelines were published in 1993, 1996 and 1997 respectively and addenda to Volumes 1 and 2
were published in 1998.
Through ongoing review of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, specific micro-organisms and chemicals are
periodically evaluated and documentation relating to protection and control of drinking-water quality is prepared. The
Working Group on Protection and Control of Drinking-Water Quality identified cyanobacteria as one of the most urgent areas
in which guidance was required. During the development by WHO of the Guidelines for Safe Recreational-water
Environments, it also became clear that health concerns related to cyanobacteria should be considered and were an area of
increasing public and professional interest.
This book describes the present state of knowledge regarding the impact of cyanobacteria on health through the use of
water. It considers aspects of risk management and details the information needed for protecting drinking water sources and
recreational water bodies from the health hazards caused by cyanobacteria and their toxins. It also outlines the state of
knowledge regarding the principal considerations in the design of programmes and studies for monitoring water resources and
supplies and describes the approaches and procedures used.
The development of this publication was guided by the recommendations of several expert meetings concerning drinking
water (Geneva, December 1995; Bad Elster, June 1996) and recreational water (Bad Elster, June 1996; St Helier, May 1997).
An expert meeting in Bad Elster, April 1997, critically reviewed the literature concerning the toxicity of cyanotoxins and
developed the scope and content of this book. A draft manuscript was reviewed at an editorial meeting in November 1997,
ix
and a further draft was reviewed by the working group responsible for updating the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality in
March 1998.
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water is one of a series of guidebooks concerning water management issues published by E & FN
Spon on behalf of WHO. Other volumes in the series include:
Water Quality Assessments (D.Chapman, Ed., Second Edition, 1996)
Water Quality Monitoring (J.Bartram and R.Ballance, Eds, 1996)
Water Pollution Control (R.Helmer and I.Hespanhol, Eds, 1997)
It is hoped that this volume will be useful to all those concerned with cyanobacteria and health, including environmental and
public health officers and professionals in the fields of water supply and management of water resources and recreational
water. It should also be of interest to postgraduates in these fields as well as to those involved in freshwater ecology and
special interest groups.
