toefl/ielts writing

332 Pages·2017·4.28 MB·English

TOEFL/IELTS
WRITING

Compiled by: Amir Khadem M.A.

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CONJUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................................................ 2
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 2
2. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 9
3. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS = CA ............................................................................................................................................... 20
TRANSITIONS ................................................................................................................................................................. 41
MODIFIERS OF NOUNS ................................................................................................................................................... 46
M1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
1.1. DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES .................................................................................................................................... 46
1.2. DEMONSTRATIVES ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
1.3. POSSESSIVES .................................................................................................................................................................. 69
1.6 DIFFERENCE WORDS: ........................................................................................................................................................ 96
1.7 NUMBERS: .................................................................................................................................................................... 104
1.8 QUESTION WORDS ......................................................................................................................................................... 108
1.9 DEFINING WORDS........................................................................................................................................................... 108
M2 ................................................................................................................................................................................... 117
ADJECTIVE ORDER: ............................................................................................................................................................... 123
M3 = NOUNS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 132
POST-MODIFIERS OF NOUNS: ....................................................................................................................................... 137
4. M4: PP ......................................................................................................................................................................... 137
5. M5: ADVERBS: THERE, HERE, INSIDE, OUTSIDE, UPSTAIRS, DOWNSTAIRS… .................................................................................. 137
6. M6: INFINITIVES: ............................................................................................................................................................. 137
7. M7: ADJECTIVE/RELATIVE CLAUSE (RC) COMPLEX SENTENCES: ................................................................................................. 138
8. M8: ADJECTIVAL/PARTICIPLE PHRASES.................................................................................................................................. 162
9. M9: APPOSITIVES ............................................................................................................................................................. 176
ADVERB CLAUSES ......................................................................................................................................................... 186
KINDS OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES ................................................................................................................................................. 187
TIME CLAUSES ..................................................................................................................................................................... 187
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 221
FIRST CONDITIONAL: ............................................................................................................................................................. 221
SECOND CONDITIONAL: UNREAL POSSIBILITY OR DREAM ............................................................................................................... 225
THIRD CONDITIONAL: NO POSSIBILITY ....................................................................................................................................... 226
REDUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSES ................................................................................................................................ 240
NOUN CLAUSE: ............................................................................................................................................................. 258
SUBJUNCTIVE: .............................................................................................................................................................. 280
INVERSION ................................................................................................................................................................... 286
LIST OF 18 TYPES OF SUBJECT/VERB INVERSION ......................................................................................................................... 286
FRONTING .................................................................................................................................................................... 293
GERUND PHRASES ........................................................................................................................................................ 304
INFINITIVE PHRASES ..................................................................................................................................................... 307
CLAUSES WITH THERE AND IT:...................................................................................................................................... 310

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Conjunctions
 Conjunctions connect words or groups of words and show how the words are related. There
are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and conjunctive
adverbs.

1. Coordinating conjunctions link similar words or word groups. There are seven coordinating
conjunctions: FANBOYS For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

For:
---She found a new job, for her boss gave her the sack.

---She remained silent, for her heart was heavy.

---I was four hours late, for the storm had derailed a train.

 PP = P + NP

 PP = P + Sentence

And:
---You make lunch, and I'll take care of the children.

Nor:
---I don't expect children to be rude, nor do I expect to be disobeyed.

But:
---It's an old car, but it's very reliable.
---It's an old car, but mine is modern.
---They rushed to the hospital, but they were too late.

Or:
1. ---He could not come, or he did not want to.
---Will Mary go to the movies, or will she stay at home?

2. ---You should eat more, or you'll make yourself ill.

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Yet: if it comes at the end of a negative statement or interrogative sentence or between an
auxiliary and a verb, it means . However, if it appears at the beginning of a clause, it means but.
زﻮﻨﻫ
---He likes to go on a trip, yet he is undecided.
---She was tired, yet she was a very gracious host.
---I ate, yet I’m still hungry.
But can be used for situations in which the second clause is a complete violation of the
expectations set up in the first clause. Yet tends to be used for situations in which the second
clause, while unexpected, is not a flat contradiction of the first clause. For example, compare the
following sentences:
but: ---Louise likes curry, but Anne does not.
yet: ---Louise likes curry, yet Ann does not.
The sentence with yet seems odd. Here is a more natural use of yet:
---Louise likes curry, yet she seldom eats in Indian restaurants.

So:
---I was feeling hungry, so I made myself a sandwich.

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Exercise:
Make the items in parentheses grammatically parallel to the italicized items that precede and, or, but
or not.

Example:
He spends his spare time playing golf and (collect, stamps).
He spends his spare time playing golf and collecting stamps.

Exercise 7.21: Parallelism
1. Speaking boldly and (clear), he explained to the owners why the miners were on strike.

2. I don't know whether I will get the job, or (I, like, it, after I get it).

3. Having no money but (not, want, anyone, to know), he simply said he would go without dinner.

4. He asked when the apartment would be available and (how much, it, cost).

5. He did it because he had to do it, not (he, wanted to).

6. He was fired not only for his inexcusable absences from the office, but (he, was, insolent, to his
superiors).

7. It is frustrating to spend so much money and (achieve, so little).

8. After seeing the preacher in person and (hear, him, speak), she began to have more respect for
him.

9. He is the kind of person who both admits his mistake and (try, to do better, the next time).

10. They are not asking for help, nor (they, accept, it) if it is offered. (Reverse the word order after
the negative nor.)

Answers to 7.21: Parallelism:
1. Speaking boldly and clearly, he explained to the owners why the miners were on strike.

2. I don't know whether I will get the job, or I like it after I get it.

3. Having no money but not wanting anyone to know, he simply said he would go without dinner.

4. He asked when the apartment would be available and how much it would cost.

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5. He did it because he had to do it, not because he wanted to.

6. He was fired not only for his inexcusable absences from the office, but also for (his) being insolent
to his superiors.

7. It is frustrating to spend so much money and to achieve so little.

8. After seeing the preacher in person and hearing him speak, she began to have more respect for
him.

9. He is the kind of person who both admits his mistake and tries to do better the next time.

10. They are not asking for help, nor do they accept it if it is offered.

Exercise 7.22: Parallelism
Directions: Rewrite any part of the sentences below that may not be parallel.
1. We ate early, ran the course, and went shopping.

2. I wished I had powers, he had the flu, and we all were having the ability to fly.

3. I organized the meeting, was basting the roast, and cleaned the house.

4. The men who were late were accused of misconduct, sent to jail, and were being fined for a huge
sum.

5. If the dog had had enough to eat, it would not have returned later to be begging.

6. The most attractive elements of the film were its ability to enrapture the viewer, its overpowering
ability to gladden those who could identify with the characters, and its ability to be enthralling, as
well.EXERCISE 7.21
ISE 7.22
7. If you have gone to the store over there before, you would know how slow they are.

8. The best, the worst, and the medium are all welcome here.

9. I think only the hard-bitten could rely on, look forward to, and even insist that keeping the one
thing the law had excluded.

10. If we had seen, had prevented the events beforehand, or have even thought about it, we would
have done something to avoid the whole situation.

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11. The worst snake of the bunch slithered its way into the underbrush, twisting its way around the
back of the pole, and attacked.

12. The deranged psychotic yelled his demands to the guard, who, in turn, relayed them to the
warden, who, in turn, was calling them into the police station.

13. The fat, old cat purred loudly, rubbed up against my leg, and waddling down the sidewalk.

14. The missile shot straight up, hovered at about 1,000 feet, and then had fallen.

15. The secretary looked up the word, muttered quietly, and was beginning typing.

Answers to Exercise 7.22: Parallelism
Directions: Rewrite any part of the sentences below that may not be parallel.
1. We ate early, ran the course, and shopped.

2. I wished I had powers, he had the flu, and we all had the ability to fly.

3. I organized the meeting, basted the roast, and cleaned the house.

4. The men who were late were accused of misconduct, sent to jail, and fined for a huge sum.

5. If the dog had had enough to eat, it would not have returned later to beg.

6. The most attractive elements of the film were its ability to enrapture the viewer, its overpowering
ability to gladden those who could identify with the characters, and its ability to enthrall, as well.

7. If you had gone to the store over there before, you would know how slow they are.

8. The best, the worst, and the mediocre are all welcome here.

9. I think only the hard-bitten could rely on, look forward to, and even insist on keeping the one thing
the law had excluded.

10. If we had seen, had prevented the events beforehand, or had even thought about it, we would
have done something to avoid the whole situation.

11. The worst snake of the bunch slithered its way into the underbrush, twisted its way around the
back of the pole, and attacked.

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12. The deranged psychotic yelled his demands to the guard, who, in turn, relayed them to the
warden, who, in turn, called them into the police station.

13. The fat, old cat purred loudly, rubbed up against my leg, and waddled down the sidewalk.

14. The missile shot straight up, hovered at about 1,000 feet, and then fell.

15. The secretary looked up the word, muttered quietly, and began typing (or,…and typed).

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TOEFL: In all patterns, ideas of equal importance should be expressed by the same grammatical
structure. Avoid expressing ideas in a series with different structures.
---Jane is young, enthusiastic, and she has talent.
---Jane is young, enthusiastic, and talented.

---We learned to read the passages carefully and underlining the main ideas.
---We learned to read the passages carefully and to underline the main ideas.

---The patient's symptoms were fever, dizziness, and his head hurt.
---The patient's symptoms were fever, dizziness, and headaches.

---Professor Williams enjoys teaching and to write.
---Professor Williams enjoys teaching and writing.

Test:
In a hot, sunny climate, man acclimatizes by eating less, drinking more liquids, wearing lighter
clothing, and………
(A) skin changes that darken
(B) his skin may darken
(C) experiencing a darkening of the skin
(D) darkens his skin

Test:
The aims of the European Economic Community are to eliminate tariffs between member
countries; developing common policies for agriculture, labor, welfare, trade, and transportation;
and to abolish trusts and cartels.
TPO 40 R1 4

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
2. Correlative conjunctions also link similar words or word groups, but they are always used in
pairs. Here are the correlative conjunctions:

Both…and… ...ﻢﻫ...ﻢﻫ
---The future both excites and scares me.

---For this job, you will need a good knowledge of both Italian and Spanish.

Take care with the positioning of each half of this paired construction. Each must
introduce grammatically similar things:
---He both is clever and hard-working!
---He is both clever and hard-working.

---He both paints and sculpts.

Either…or… ...ﺎﻳ...ﺎﻳ
---I'm going to buy either a camera or a CD player with the money.
---Either he is going to get a job here, or he is going to study abroad.

Neither…nor… ...ﻪﻧ...ﻪﻧ
---Their house is neither big nor small.

---I could neither laugh nor cry.

---Neither is he reliable, nor is he pious.

---He is neither reliable nor pious.

---He is neither well qualified nor sufficiently experienced for that position.

---Neither the public nor private sector of the economy will be seriously affected by this new
regulation.

Neither/either + noun + nor/or + plural noun + plural verb
Neither/either + noun + nor/or + singular noun + singular verb

---Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.
---Neither his friends nor John is going to the beach today.
---Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.
---Neither the boys nor Carmen has seen this movie before.
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