Table Of ContentTOBATI:
TRADITIONAND CHANGE INA PARAGUAYANTOWN
BY
JAMES ESTONHAY
ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL
OFTHE UNIVERSITY OFFLORIDA INPARTIALFULFILLMENT
OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF
DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITY OFFLORIDA
1993
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by a Fulbright HE Dissertation
Fellowship under the U.S. Department of Education, and a Dissertation
Fellowship from the Organization of American States. I am most
grateful for the support of both institutions in completing the
fieldwork necessary for this study. I especially thank Mr. Alan
Rogers, United States Information Service in Asuncion, and Sr. Atilio
Nieto, special operations officer of the Organization of American
States, in the same city, for their personal attention during my stay
in Paraguay.
During the many years I worked with the Peace Corps and with
private business in Paraguay, I made many close friends, met many
people, and made contact with many institutions in both the
governmental and private sectors. When I returned to Paraguay to
embark on the present study, I was grateful that those people were
there to greet me and help me in so many ways. I often prevailed
upon the kindness and patience of old friends and acquaintances, as
much for camaraderie as for assistance in my work. Due to the help
of many individuals, I bypassed much of the red tape and
bureaucratic "channels" (truly the bane of researchers in Latin
American countries) that otherwise would have made life so much
more difficult and less pleasurable.
I was especially happy to see old friends and colleagues among
the Paraguayan staff of the Peace Corps as well as the directors and
staff of MONITOR S.A. with whom I worked for four years. At the
Peace Corps office, my close friends Ing. Antonio Dacak and
(compoblano) Pedro Souza never failed to meet me with ice cold
terere and stimulating conversation. Both men are campesinos in
fact and in heart and never failed to offer insights into what it is that
makes things tick in rural Paraguay. John McClosky, assistant
director of the Peace Corps's training center in Aregua, was also a
source of not only penetrating observations, but material support as
well. At MONITOR, Dr. Alfredo Ratti and Arminda Ramirez remained
close friends who were likely to declare any event occasion for an
asado, or Paraguayan barbeque, and rally the staff of the
organization for a morale booster at propitious times.
I was once again welcomed at the Centro Paraguayo de Estudios
Sociologies (CPES), a private research institution for social research
that fills an enormous gap in Paraguayan studies because of the
paucity of government support for sociological studies in the
universities. The directors of the institution, Drs. Domingo Rivarola
and Graziella Corvalan, both eminent figures in Parauayan studies,
generously provided office space, archival access, and practical
assistance even as they struggled for scarce resources themselves.
There has been a dramatic increase in research, scholarship,
and writing among a dynamic group of younger individuals in
Paraguay. I noticed, above all, that Paraguayan intellectuals tend to
differ from their North American colleagues in that they are very
much more committed to praxis, in connecting scholarship with
actual experience. These are people who are often difficult to locate
in their offices because they are more likely to be far from the
in
comforts of the city in order to glean essential data at its source—
directly from the people. This kind of research may be much more
critical for Paraguayans who lack access to the marvelous resources
in basic data and comparative material available in other parts of the
world, but it is clear that these people are dedicated to the
proposition that knowledge is best learned from direct experience
rather than digested whole from anonymous sources.
Among these people, I especially benefitted from the
companionship, generosity, and criticism of Dr. Ramon Fogel, director
of a new research and action organization called the Centro de
Estudios Rurales Interdisciplinarios. Other interested scholars in the
country who were generous with their time included Miguel Chase-
Sardi, Daniel Campos, and Oleg Vysokolan, as well as Digno Britez in
the social action section of the Comite de Iglesias.
There is a close group of Paraguay aficionados and expatriates
in this country often referred to as the "Paraguayan Mafia" and there
is a small but thriving contingent of that Mafia who transported the
terere custom to Gainesville. Without those friends it would have
been a much lonelier place for a Paraguayanist, so I would like to
thank Jody and Cathy Stallings (who introduced me to Gainesville),
Peter Cronkleton, and Jon Dain and Karen Kainer, who all provided an
opportunity for me to talk freely about my favorite subject. Other
friends of the "Mafia" in Washington, D.C., who provided valuable
help during the course of this project included Frank O'Hara (former
Director of the Peace Corps in Paraguay), Kate Raftery, Mark
Hathaway, and Paul Davis.
IV
I was certainly no less fortunate in the support and guidance I
enjoyed at the University of Florida. The individuals on my graduate
committee, chaired by Dr. Maxine Margolis, have always been a
source not only of knowledge, but of inspiration. Dr. Margolis has
been exceedingly patient throughout the ordeal of writing this
dissertation, and without her consistent encouragement, it might
never have been completed. Many thanks are due to Drs. Marianne
Schmink, Helen Safa, Michael Moseley, Marvin Harris, and Murdo
MacLeod for many years of support, guidance, instruction, and
criticism. All of these people have convinced me of the value of
anthropology as a discipline, and the history of social change in Latin
America as a subject. Also, I was exceedingly fortunate to have
known Dr. Charles Wagley during his lifetime. It was thanks mainly
to his personal encouragement and support that I embarked upon
this project, and I join his many students and colleagues in my very
fond memories of this great scholar and gentleman.
I am no less indebted to all my fellow basement-dwellers,
companeros and colleagues in the Anthropology department. Only
one's friends and fellows can truly understand and appreciate the
high points and low points of a graduate career and dissertation
experience. Also, as sources of knowledge and insights they are as
valuable as any resource the University has to offer. The list of
people who have helped me with their friendship and sympathy
during these years is too lengthy to mention each of them by name,
but I trust they know who they are and will accept my thanks.
I owe an enormous debt of gratitude, however, to Bryan Byrne,
a fellow anthropology student who had the dubious luck of living
next door to me in Gainesville as I was completing this dissertation.
Bryan was exceedingly generous with his time and expertise,
especially in terms of data processing. He was endlessly patient with
my requests for technical assistance, and also served as a forthright
and capable critic of the written work. He and Nathalie Lebon were a
constant source of encouragement, but their nearby presence also
offered a convenient place of escape when escape was clearly
indicated.
Upon returning from Paraguay I was fortunate to find work in
the Map and Image Library of the University of Florida, surely a
congenial place for an anthropologist! Dr. Helen Jane Armstrong, the
Map Librarian, and Mil Willis, Archivist, were both extremely helpful
in adjusting their own busy schedules to my needs, as well as in
acquiring Paraguayan materials for the collection. I would also like
to acknowledge the help of Richard Scholz, a student employee in the
Map Library, who created the maps for this dissertation. I also
received help from the department for Spain, Portugal, and Latin
America (SPLAT) of Watson Library, at the University of Kansas.
Shelley Miller, the Director of the collection, was always helpful in
making the extensive collection of Paraguayan materials at Kansas
available to me.
Finally, I express my deepest thanks to the great people of the
town of Tobati, Paraguay, who welcomed me into their town and into
their lives. I admire them and thank them as much for their
patience as well as for their helpful friendliness during the nearly
eighteen months I was their neighbor. Once again, there are so many
people who I remember, and who were so generous with their time,
that it would be impossible to name them all. I was welcomed into a
group of close friends who drank terere or cold beers at the copetin
of Luis and Mirta Morales de Ramos. The little bar was located
directly on the main street and near the church, where we could
catch the best view or else get the freshest gossip of everything that
happened in town. It was also the best place for heated debates on
social issues with my friend Luis Baltazar (Nene) Macchi, for we
could get an idea of public consensus from an audience of very vocal
participants.
Nata Rivarola, Armando Rivarola, and their four wonderful
children made me feel like part of their family. Each person in that
very engaging family gave me a completely different and candid
view of the ups and downs of everyday life in Tobati. I would often
leave their house only to stop by and chat with Jose and Angelica
Zaracho de Finestra, who were especially sensitive to the civic
conscience of the town. Jose's mother and aunt were close friends of
the Services's over forty years ago, and they loved to tell me about
the Tobati of earlier times.
In a country where everyone seems to know everyone else, I
was not surprised that a very close friend in Asuncion had a
compadre in Tobati. Thus, I met Silvestre (Nene) Ortega, a very
thoughtful and wise man who was a wonderful source of information
about local government, politics, and business affairs. During my
many conversations with Nene over the ubiquitous terere, he never
said an unkind or critical word about anyone, but simply explained
how it was that things worked and got done in the town.
Vll
Finally, three especially generous and friendly people were
invaluable sources of information. The justice of the peace, Prof. Jose
Zaracho, and the young and socially conscious village priest, Pa'i
Simon Rolon opened the considerable archival sources under their
particular care, and welcomed me into their work places. I am
especially grateful, however, to Cesar Ortega, the profesor of physical
education at the Colegio, who worked closely with me in completing
so many interviews and gathering data. To all of these people, and
many more, I owe thanks, and I can only hope that this final work
does nothing to betray their trust and friendship.
Vlll
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
LISTOFTABLES
xiii
LISTOFFIGURES xv
ABSTRACT
xv
i
CHAPTERS
INTRODUCTION
1 1
Scope and Organization of the Study 9
Methods 16
Theoretical Perspective 21
Bibliographical Comment 29
Notes 35
2 THESETTING: LAND,PEOPLE,ANDRESOURCES 36
TheLand 36
The Paraguayan Chaco 41
Eastern Paraguay 44
The Physical Infrastructure 47
Rural Transformation 52
The Modern Social Landscape 56
The Emergence of Finance Capitalism 56
Demographic Dynamism 59
"Free" Lands and Invisible Borders 62
Notes 68
THEEVOLUTIONOFA SOCIETY:
FROMTHECOLONYTOTHEMODERNERA 70
Mohammed's Paradise or Pangloss' Fantasy:
TheConquest 73
Maturation of the Colony: 1556-1811 83
The Jesuits and the Comiin 89
Reform and the Errant Colony 98
Independence: The Period of Great Dictators 100
Independence and the Franciata 100
Carlos Antonio Lopez and the Apertura 110
El Mariscal and the Immolation of a Country 113
The Second National Period 118
National Divestment 121
Institutionalization of Political Power 123
The Platonic Republic 125
War and Revolution 127
New Internationalism 132
Notes 138
ARURALHISTORY
143
A New Town in the Old World 143
"Service to the Christians, and to the Indians,
Shelter" The Encomienda 149
:
The Franciscan Missions and the
Pueblos de Indios 154
The Fitful Sleep: A Rural Town in Old Paraguay 158
Historical Demography 160
Economic Evolution of the Pueblo 172
The Problem ofLabor 178
Pueblo Libre: The Process of Emancipation,
1803-1848 180
Destruction and Regeneration 188
The War in the Cordillera 190
Reconstruction and the Consolidation of the
Peasantry 194
Notes
...197
