Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and Its Applications

708 Pages·2020·38.107 MB·English

by  Francesco Parrino, Leonardo Palmisano

Titanium Dioxide (TiO ) and Its
2
Applications
TheMetalOxidesSeriesEditedbyGhenadiiKorotcenkov
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Metal Oxides Series
Titanium Dioxide (TiO )
2
and Its Applications
Edited by
Francesco Parrino
Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Trento, Trento, Italy
Leonardo Palmisano
“Schiavello-Grillone” Photocatalysis Group,
Department of Engineering, University of
Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Series Editor
Ghenadii Korotcenkov
Department of Theoretical Physics,
Moldova State University, Chisinau, Moldova
Elsevier
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Contents
Listofcontributors xv
Abouttheserieseditor xix
Abouttheeditors xxi
Prefacetotheseries xxiii
Prefacetothevolume xxvii
Section 1 Titanium dioxide: synthesis and
characterization 1
1 Introduction 3
FrancescoParrinoandLeonardoPalmisano
1.1 Economicaspects 3
1.2 Summaryofthebook 6
References 11
2 Propertiesoftitaniumdioxide 13
FrancescoParrino,FrancescaRitaPomilla,GiovanniCamera-Roda,
VittorioLoddoandLeonardoPalmisano
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Structuralproperties 14
2.2.1 StructuresofTiO 14
2
2.2.2 MaintechniquesusedforTiO structuralanalysis 16
2
2.3 Structureanddefects 18
2.3.1 Defectivity 19
2.3.2 Surfacedefectivity 22
2.3.3 Surfaceandlatticedistortion 26
2.4 TiO morphologies 26
2
2.5 Thermodynamicproperties 29
2.6 Electronic properties 32
2.7 Electricalproperties 33
2.8 Opticalproperties 35
2.9 Photon-inducedbehavior 39
2.10 Mechanicalandrheologicalproperties 42
2.10.1 Mechanicalproperties 42
2.10.2 Rheologicalproperties 46
References 46
vi Contents
3 Structural andelectronicpropertiesofTiO fromfirstprinciples
2
calculations 67
SergioTosoni,GiovanniDiLibertoandGianfrancoPacchioni
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Electronic structurecalculationsonTiO :methodologicalaspects 68
2
3.2.1 Thebandgapissue 68
3.2.2 Excesselectrons(andholes)inTiO :thelocalization
2
problem 70
3.2.3 Oxygenvacancies 72
3.2.4 Interstitial Tispecies 74
3.2.5 Photoexcitedcarriers 75
3.3 Titaniaheterojunctionsandnanoparticles: computational
modelingofcutting-edgematerials 76
3.3.1 Separationofphotoexcitedchargecarriersintitania
nanocomposites 76
3.3.2 Computationalmodelingoftitaniananoparticles 78
3.4 Conclusions 81
Acknowledgments 81
References 81
4 Synthesisandcharacterizationoftitaniumdioxideandtitanium
dioxide(cid:1)basedmaterials 87
MariannaBellardita,SedatYurdakalandLeonardoPalmisano
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Preparationmethods 88
4.2.1 PreparationmethodsofpowderedTiO -basedmaterials 88
2
4.2.2 PreparationmethodsofTiO film 104
2
4.3 CharacterizationtechniquesofTiO 109
2
4.3.1 X-raydiffraction 109
4.3.2 Scanningelectronmicroscopy 115
4.3.3 Transmissionelectronmicroscopy 121
4.3.4 Brunauer(cid:1)Emmett(cid:1)Teller-specificsurfacearea
determination 127
4.3.5 Diffusereflectancespectroscopy 135
4.3.6 Photoluminescencespectroscopy 141
4.3.7 X-rayphotoelectronspectroscopy 144
4.3.8 Thermalgravimetricanalysis 147
References 152
Section 2 Energy applications 167
5 Synthetic,naturalandbioinspireddyesasTiO sensitizers
2
insustainablesolarcells 169
NunzioGenitoriandGaetanoDiMarco
5.1 Introduction 169
Contents vii
5.1.1 Photovoltaictechnology 169
5.1.2 Dye-sensitizedsolarcells 171
5.2 Semiconductors 176
5.2.1 Bandsformation 176
5.2.2 Theoccupationoftheorbitals 176
5.2.3 Titaniumdioxide 177
5.3 Dyes 180
5.3.1 Syntheticdyes 180
5.3.2 Naturaldyes 182
5.3.3 Computationaldetails 189
5.3.4 Bioinspired 191
5.4 Otherfunctionalmaterials 191
5.4.1 CharacteristicsandperformanceofCEs 191
5.4.2 Characteristicsandperformanceofelectrolytes 192
5.5 AssemblyandcharacterizationsforDSSCs 193
5.5.1 Developmentofphotoanodesandcathodes 193
5.5.2 Spectroscopictechniques 193
5.5.3 Cyclicvoltammetry 194
5.5.4 Roughnessanddesorptionfactor 196
5.5.5 CharacteristicI-Vcurves 197
5.5.6 Quantumefficiency:IPCE,APCE,andLHE 201
5.5.7 Electrochemicalimpedancespectroscopy 203
5.5.8 Tafelelectroanalysis 204
5.6 Conclusions 206
References 207
6 TiO -basedmaterialsforphotocatalytichydrogenproduction 211
2
MariaVittoriaDozziandElenaSelli
6.1 Introduction 211
6.2 PhotocatalyticwatersplittingwithTiO 212
2
6.3 DevelopmentofsensitiveTiO -basedphotocatalystsforH
2 2
generation 214
6.3.1 Bandgapengineering 214
6.3.2 SurfaceTiO sensitization 217
2
6.4 SeparationofphotogeneratedchargesinTiO -based
2
photocatalystsforH generation 218
2
6.4.1 ChargeseparationinTiO phasejunctions 218
2
6.4.2 Chargeseparationinshape-controlledanataseTiO 218
2
6.4.3 NoblemetalnanoparticlesdepositionandSchottky
junctionfabrication 220
6.4.4 Fabricationofheterojunctions 222
6.4.5 LoadingcocatalystsonTiO 225
2
6.5 Sacrificial agentsinphotocatalytichydrogenproduction:
fromoverallwatersplittingtobiomassreforming 228
6.6 Conclusionandperspectives 230
References 230
viii Contents
7 TiO -baseddevicesforenergy-relatedapplications 241
2
C.G.JothiPrakashandR.Prasanth
7.1 Introduction 241
7.1.1 Titaniumdioxideforenergyharvesting 242
7.1.2 Titaniumdioxideforenergystorage 242
7.2 Energystorageapplications 243
7.2.1 Supercapacitors 243
7.2.2 Batteries 250
7.2.3 Hydrogenproductionandstorage 254
7.2.4 Others 258
7.3 Conclusionandoutlook 260
References 260
8 HeattransferbyusingTiO nanofluids 267
2
VittorioLoddoandGiovanniCameraRoda
Listofabbreviations 267
8.1 Introduction 267
8.2 PreparationandcharacterizationofTiO nanofluids 270
2
8.2.1 Nanoparticlespreparation 270
8.2.2 Preparationofnanofluids 272
8.2.3 Parametersinfluencingtheaggregationandstability
ofTiO nanofluids 274
2
8.2.4 Nanoparticlesizemeasurements 274
8.2.5 Z-potentialmeasurements 275
8.2.6 pHmeasurements 275
8.3 HeatconductioninTiO nanofluids 276
2
8.3.1 Influenceofparticleload 278
8.3.2 Influenceoftemperature 278
8.3.3 Influenceofthermalconductivityofthebasefluid 279
8.3.4 Influenceofparticleclustersizeandshapeonthermal
conductivity 279
8.3.5 Influenceofsurfactant 285
8.3.6 Influenceofultrasonictreatment 285
8.4 HeatconvectioninTiO nanofluids 285
2
8.4.1 Forcedconvection 287
8.4.2 Naturalconvection 293
8.5 BoilingheattransferofTiO nanofluids 295
2
8.5.1 Influenceofnanoparticletype 296
8.5.2 Influenceofparticleloading 296
8.5.3 Influenceofsurfaceroughness 297
8.5.4 Influenceoftheheatermaterial 298
8.5.5 Influenceofionicadditive 298
8.6 ApplicationsofTiO nanofluids 298
2
8.7 Futureinvestigations 299
References 300
Contents ix
Section 3 TiO in our life 309
2
9 TiO aswhitepigmentandvalorizationofthewastecoming
2
fromitsproduction 311
ManuelJesu´sGa´zquez,SilviaMarı´aPe´rezMoreno
andJuanPedroBolı´var
9.1 Introduction 311
9.1.1 Titaniumminerals 312
9.1.2 Titaniumorepurification 313
9.2 Routesforthemanufactureoftitaniumdioxide
pigments(PigmentWhite6) 315
9.2.1 Thechlorideprocess 315
9.2.2 Sulfateprocess 317
9.3 PropertiesandapplicationsofPigmentWhite6 319
9.3.1 Properties 319
9.3.2 Applications 321
9.4 Valorizationofcoproductsandwastesgenerated 327
9.4.1 Mainwastesgeneratedinthesulfateprocess 328
9.4.2 Mainwastesgeneratedinthechlorideprocess 329
References 330
10 Titaniumdioxide(cid:1)basednanomaterials:applicationoftheir
smartpropertiesinbiomedicine 337
GiadaGrazianaGenchi
10.1 Introduction 337
10.2 Smartpropertiesoftitaniumdioxide(cid:1)basednanomaterials 338
10.2.1 Advancedphotodynamictherapyapproachedbased
onhybridtitaniumdioxide(cid:1)basednanomaterials 339
10.2.2 Advancedsonodynamictherapyapproachedbased
onhybridtitaniumdioxide(cid:1)basednanomaterials 342
10.3 Tissueengineering 343
10.4 Drugdelivery 345
10.5 Otherapplications 349
10.6 Conclusionandperspectives 350
References 351
11 TiO inthefoodindustryandcosmetics 353
2
AnnachiaraBerardinelliandFilippoParisi
11.1 Introduction 353
11.2 Titaniumdioxideasfoodadditive 354
11.2.1 Titaniumdioxideinfood 354
11.2.2 Influenceoftitanium dioxideonhumanhealth 355
11.3 Titaniumdioxideforfoodpreservation 357
11.3.1 Antibacterialeffects 357
11.3.2 Ethylenedegradation 360
11.3.3 Activepackaging 361
x Contents
11.4 Titaniumdioxideincosmeticsandpersonalcareproducts 362
11.4.1 Regulations 364
11.4.2 Safetyofsunscreens 364
11.5 Conclusion 365
References 366
12 Titaniumdioxide:antimicrobialsurfacesandtoxicityassessment 373
ValeriaDeMatteis,MariafrancescaCascioneandRosariaRinaldi
12.1 Introduction 373
12.2 Antibacterialandantimicoticproperties 375
12.2.1 AdverseeffectofTiO onbacteria 375
2
12.2.2 AdverseeffectsofTiO onfungi 378
2
12.3 ToxicityassessmentonTiO NPs 378
2
12.3.1 Regulations 378
12.3.2 Exposurerouteandbiodistrubution 379
12.4 Antimicrobialsurfaces 383
12.5 Conclusion 386
Conflictsofinterest 386
Acknowledgments 386
References 386
13 FunctionalizationofglassbyTiO -basedself-cleaningcoatings 395
2
CorradoGarlisi,GabrieleScandura,AhmedYusuf
andSamarAlJitan
13.1 Introduction 395
13.2 Mainprinciplebehindself-cleaningbehavior 396
13.3 Applicationsofself-cleaningglassandmain
commercialproducts 402
13.3.1 Commercialself-cleaningglasses 405
13.4 DopedTiO (cid:1)basedcoatingsforimprovedself-cleaningability 408
2
13.4.1 Mechanismofdoped-TiO coatingsforglass 408
2
13.4.2 Synthesisstrategies 412
13.5 Futuretendencies:multilayercoatingsformultifunctionalglass 414
13.5.1 Multilayerstructuresforimprovedself-cleaningand
antireflectiveability 414
13.5.2 Self-cleaningandenergy-savingmultilayerstructures 417
13.6 Conclusion 420
References 421
14 TiO asasourceoftitanium 429
2
XingliZou,ZhongyaPang,LiJiandXionggangLu
14.1 TiO productionfromtitaniumminerals 429
2
14.1.1 Productionoftitanium-richslagfromtitaniumminerals 429
14.1.2 ProductionofTiO fromtitanium-richslag 431
2
14.2 TheKrollprocessfromTiO toTi 433
2