Titanium and Titanium Alloys: Fundamentals and Applications

523 Pages·2003·7.47 MB·English

Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Editedby
C.Leyens andM.Peters
TitaniumandTitaniumAlloys.FundamentalsandApplications.
EditedbyChristophLeyens,ManfredPeters
Copyright©2003WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-30534-3
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Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Fundamentals and Applications
Edited by
C. Leyens and M. Peters
Editedby (cid:1) This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless,
editors,authors,andpublisherdonotwarrant
Dr.ChristophLeyens theinformationcontainedthereintobefreeof
Dr.ManfredPeters errors.Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat
DLR–GermanAerospaceCenter statements,data,illustrations,proceduraldetails
InstituteofMaterialsResearch orotheritemsmayinadvertentlybeinaccurate.
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ISBN 3-527-30534-3
V
Foreword
In 1791 the British reverend, mineralogist and chemist, William Gregor, was the
first to discover titanium. Four years later, Martin Klaproth, a Berlin chemist, in-
dependently isolated titanium oxide. The story of the Greek mythological children
of Uranos and Gaia, the Titans, provided him the inspiration for naming it tita-
nium. The Titans, utterly hated by their father, were held in captivity in the
earth’s crust, similar to the hard to extract ore. It took more than 100 years to iso-
late the metal. The first alloys, including today’s most popular Ti-6Al-4V, were de-
veloped in the late 1940s in the United States. Today a large number of titanium
alloys have paved the way for light metals to vastly expand into many industrial
applications.
Titanium and its alloys stand out primarily due to their high specific strength
and excellent corrosion resistance, at just half the weight of steels and Ni-based
superalloys. This explains their early success in the aerospace and the chemical
industries.But other markets such as architecture,chemical processing,medicine,
power generation, marine and offshore, sports and leisure, and transportation are
seeing increasedapplication of titanium.
This book is intended for students, materials scientists, engineers, and techni-
cians from research, development, production, and design departments who want
to become familiar with titanium and its alloys. Introductory chapters covering
the metallurgical background, mechanical properties, oxidation behavior, and oxi-
dation protection are followed by chapters on production and processing, and in-
troductions to various traditional and new fields of application. Besides titanium
and its conventionalalloys, insight isalsoprovidedon titanium aluminides and ti-
tanium matrix composites.The variety of applications of titanium and its alloys in
aerospace and non-aerospace markets are documented in detail. Extensive refer-
encesallow further expansion oneach individual subject.
Cologne,June 2003 C. Leyens and M.Peters
TitaniumandTitaniumAlloys.FundamentalsandApplications.
EditedbyChristophLeyens,ManfredPeters
Copyright©2003WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-30534-3
VII
Contents
Foreword V
ListofContributors XVII
1 StructureandPropertiesofTitaniumandTitaniumAlloys 1
M.Peters,J. Hemptenmacher, J. Kumpfertand C. Leyens
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Metallurgy ofTitanium 4
1.2.1 Crystal Structure 4
1.2.2 Plastic Deformation 5
1.2.3 (cid:1)/(cid:2)-Transformation 6
1.2.4 Diffusion 8
1.3 The Classification ofTitanium Alloys 9
1.4 Metallographic Preparation ofthe Microstructure 11
1.5 The MicrostructureofTitanium Alloys 12
1.6 Property Profilesofthe Titanium Alloy Classes 16
1.7 The Alloying Elements of Titanium 18
1.8 The Conventional Titanium Alloys 19
1.8.1 (cid:2) Alloys 19
1.8.2 Near-(cid:2) Alloys 22
1.8.3 (cid:2)+(cid:1) Alloys 22
1.8.4 Metastable (cid:1) Alloys 23
1.9 Textures in Titanium Alloys 23
1.10 Mechanical PropertiesofTitanium Alloys 25
1.10.1 Strength 27
1.10.2 Stiffness 27
1.10.3 Elevated Temperature Strength 30
1.10.4 Damage Toleranceand Fatigue 33
1.11 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 35
TitaniumandTitaniumAlloys.FundamentalsandApplications.
EditedbyChristophLeyens,ManfredPeters
Copyright©2003WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:3-527-30534-3
VIII Contents
2 BetaTitaniumAlloys 37
G. Terlindeand G. Fischer
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Metallurgy and Processing 39
2.3 Mechanical Properties 42
2.3.1 Tensile Properties 42
2.3.2 Fracture Toughness 44
2.3.3 Fatigue (HCF) 49
2.3.4 Fatigue Crack Propagation (FCP) 52
2.4 Applications 54
2.5 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 55
3 OrthorhombicTitaniumAluminides:Intermetallics withImproved Damage
Tolerance 59
J. Kumpfertand C. Leyens
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Physical Metallurgy: Crystal Structures,Phase Equilibria, and Alloy
Chemistry 62
3.3 Propertiesof OrthorhombicTitanium Aluminides 64
3.3.1 Physical Properties 65
3.3.2 Microstructures 65
3.3.3 Mechanical Properties 68
3.3.3.1 Tensile Properties 68
3.3.3.2 CreepBehavior 71
3.3.3.3 Fatigue Strength, Crack Growth Behavior, and Fracture Toughness 72
3.4 Oxidationand Environmental Embrittlement 78
3.5 Concluding Remarks 84
3.6 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 85
4 (cid:1)-TitaniumAluminideAlloys:Alloy DesignandProperties 89
F. Appeland M.Oehring
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Constitution of (cid:3)-Titanium Aluminide Alloys 90
4.3 Phase Transformationsand Microstructure 93
4.4 MicromechanismsofDeformation 95
4.4.1 Slip and Twinning Systems 97
4.4.2 DislocationMultiplication 100
4.4.3 Twin Nucleation 104
4.4.4 Glide Resistanceand DislocationMobility 105
4.5 Mechanical Properties 112
4.5.1 Grain Refinement 112
4.5.2 EffectsofAlloy Composition 114
4.5.3 SolidSolution Effectsdue to NbAdditions 115
4.5.4 Precipitation Hardening 116
4.5.5 CreepResistance 121
Contents IX
4.5.6 Crack Propagation and Fracture Toughness 128
4.5.7 Fatigue Behavior 131
4.6 BasicAspects of Processing 133
4.6.1 Manufacture ofIngots 133
4.6.2 Casting 135
4.6.3 Dynamic Recrystallization on HotWorking 136
4.6.4 Developmentof HotWorking Routes 139
4.7 Conclusions 145
4.8 Acknowledgments 146
4.9 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 146
5 FatigueofTitaniumAlloys 153
L. Wagnerand J.K. Bigoney
5.1 Introduction 153
5.2 Influence ofMicrostructure 154
5.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium, (cid:2) Alloys 154
5.2.2 Near-(cid:2) and (cid:2)+(cid:1) Alloys 157
5.2.3 (cid:1) Alloys 164
5.3 Influence ofCrystallographic Textureon Fatigue Life 169
5.4 Influence ofMean Stresson Fatigue Life 171
5.5 Influence ofMechanical Surface Treatments 171
5.6 Influence ofThermomechanical SurfaceTreatments 175
5.6.1 (cid:2) Alloys 175
5.6.2 Near-(cid:2) and (cid:2)+(cid:1) Alloys 176
5.6.3 (cid:1) Alloys 177
5.7 Titanium Aluminides 178
5.8 CompositeMaterials 180
5.9 Summary 181
5.10 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 182
6 Oxidation andProtection ofTitaniumAlloysandTitaniumAluminides 187
C. Leyens
6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 Fundamentals of OxidationofMetals 188
6.2.1 Thermodynamics of Oxidation 189
6.2.2 OxidationKinetics 191
6.2.2.1 DisorderFeaturesin Oxides 192
6.2.2.2 Kinetics 194
6.2.3 Oxidationof Alloys 195
6.2.3.1 SelectiveOxidation 196
6.2.3.2 Internal Oxidation 197
6.3 OxidationBehaviorofTitanium Alloys and Titanium Aluminides 198
6.3.1 OxideScale Formation 199
6.3.1.1 Ti-Al-O Phase Diagram 199
6.3.1.2 OxideScale Growth 201
X Contents
6.3.1.3 Effect of Alloying Elements 207
6.3.1.4 Effect of Atmosphere 209
6.3.2 DissolutionofNon-metals in the SubsurfaceZoneofAlloys 210
6.3.2.1 Effect of Non-metal Dissolutiononthe Mechanical Properties 211
6.4 Measuresto ImproveOxidationResistance 213
6.4.1 Alloying Elements 213
6.4.2 Pre-oxidation 215
6.4.3 Coatings 216
6.4 Summary and Outlook 223
6.5 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 223
7 TitaniumandTitaniumAlloys–
FromRawMaterialtoSemi-finishedProducts 231
H. Sibum
7.1 Introduction 231
7.2 Titanium Sponge 231
7.3 FromSponge to Ingot 234
7.4 Titanium, Titanium Alloys and Special Alloys 236
7.5 Processingto Semi-finishedProducts 239
7.6 Applications 241
7.7 Recycling 243
7.8 Summary and Outlook 244
8 Fabrication ofTitaniumAlloys 245
M.Petersand C. Leyens
8.1 Introduction 245
8.2 Machining ofTitanium Alloys 245
8.3 Casting 247
8.4 Welding 250
8.4.1 FusionWelding 251
8.4.2 FrictionWelding 252
8.4.3 ElectronBeam Welding 252
8.4.4 LaserBeam Welding 253
8.4.5 Spot Welding 253
8.4.6 Propertiesof WeldedStructures 253
8.5 Superplastic Forming/DiffusionBonding 255
8.6 PowderMetallurgy 258
8.7 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 261
9 InvestmentCastingofTitanium 263
H.-P.Nicolai and Chr. Liesner
9.1 Titanium 263
9.2 Cast Alloys 263
9.3 Melting Units 265
9.4 MoldingMaterials 265
Contents XI
9.5 Casting Design 266
9.6 Finishing 266
9.6.1 Pickling (Chemical Milling) 267
9.6.2 HotIsostaticPressing(HIP) 267
9.6.3 Welding 267
9.7 Examples ofCast Parts 267
10 SuperplasticFormingandDiffusionBondingofTitanium
andTitaniumAlloys 273
W. Beck
10.1 Introduction 273
10.2 Superplasticity 275
10.3 DiffusionBonding 278
10.4 The SPF Process 279
10.5 SPF-Material InvestigationsforParameter Definition 281
10.6 SPF Tooling 283
10.7 Examples ofSPF Components 283
10.8 SPF Forming Presses 285
10.9 SPF/DB Processing 285
10.10 SPF/DB Structuresand Components 286
10.11 Summary 287
10.12 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 288
11 ForgingofTitanium 289
G. Terlinde,T. Witulskiand G. Fischer
11.1 Introduction 289
11.2 General Propertiesand Applications 289
11.3 Thermomechanical Treatment of Titanium Alloys 292
11.3.1 ProcessingofForging Stock 292
11.3.2 Forgings 293
11.3.3 Heat Treatment 296
11.4 ProcessDesign 296
11.4.1 GeometricRequirements 296
11.4.2 ForgedComponentsand Forging Equipment 297
11.4.3 ProcessingWindowfor Forgings 298
11.4.4 Finite Element Simulation 300
11.5 Examples forProcessOptimization and Applications 301
11.6 ReferencedLiterature and Further Reading 304
12 ContinuousFiberReinforcedTitaniumMatrixComposites:
Fabrication, PropertiesandApplications 305
C. Leyens,J. Hausmann and J. Kumpfert
12.1 Introduction 305
12.2 FabricationProcesses 306
12.3 Properties 310