TIR1/AFB-Based Auxin Perception: Mechanism and Role in

12 Pages·2015·0.52 MB·English

ThePlantCell,Vol.27:9–19,January2015,www.plantcell.orgã2015AmericanSocietyofPlantBiologists.Allrightsreserved.
REVIEW
SCFTIR1/AFB-Based Auxin Perception: Mechanism and Role in
Plant Growth and Development
MohammadSalehin,RammyaniBagchi,andMarkEstelle1
HowardHughesMedicalInstituteandSectionofCellandDevelopmentalBiology,UniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego,LaJolla,
California92093
Auxinregulatesavastarrayofgrowthanddevelopmentalprocessesthroughoutthelifecycleofplants.Auxinresponsesare
highlycontextdependentandcaninvolvechangesincelldivision,cellexpansion,andcellfate.Thecomplexityoftheauxin
response is illustrated by the recent finding that the auxin-responsive gene set differs significantly between different cell
types in the root. Auxin regulation of transcription involves a core pathway consisting of the TIR1/AFB F-box proteins, the
Aux/IAAtranscriptionalrepressors,andtheARFtranscriptionfactors.Auxinisperceivedbyatransientcoreceptorcomplex
consistingofaTIR1/AFBproteinandanAux/IAAprotein.AuxinbindingtothecoreceptorresultsindegradationoftheAux/
IAAsandderepressionofARF-basedtranscription.Althoughthebasicoutlinesofthispathwayarenowwellestablished,it
remainsunclearhowspecificityofthepathwayisconferred.However,recentresults,focusingonthewaysthatthesethree
familiesofproteinsinteract,arestartingtoprovideimportantclues.
INTRODUCTION PROTEIN2A(SKP2A)(Juradoetal.,2010),andthenuclearSCFTIR1/
AFBs-Aux/IAA(SKP-Cullin-Fbox[SCF],TIR1/AFB[TRANSPORTIN-
ThetermauxinisderivedfromtheGreekword“auxein,”which
HIBITORRESISTANT1/AUXINSIGNALINGF-BOX],AUXIN/INDOLE
meanstogrow.Darwinobservedtheeffectsofauxininplantsas
ACETICACID)auxincoreceptors(Dharmasirietal.,2005a;Kepinski
earlyas1880.Inhisbook“ThePowerofMovementinPlants,”he
and Leyser, 2005; Calderón-Villalobos et al., 2012). Although there
described how the effects of light on movement of canary grass
havebeensomeimportantrecentadvancesinourunderstandingof
coleoptiles were mediated by a chemical signal (Darwin and
ABP1,thisreviewfocusesontheSCFTIR1/AFBcomplexesandtheir
Darwin,1880).Ittookanother60yearsofresearchtoshowthat
function in auxin perception and the regulation of transcription in
this chemical signal is indole-3-acetic acid, the major naturally
Arabidopsisthaliana.
occurring auxin in plants (Haagen-Smit et al., 1946; Mauseth,
1991;Ravenetal.,1992;SalisburyandRoss,1992;Arteca,1996).
Afterthisdiscovery,auxinresearchadvancedrapidlyalongmul- SCFTIR1/AFBsANDAUXINPERCEPTION
tiple trajectories. Numerous auxinic compounds were identified,
some of which were developed as herbicides and growth regu- Auxinregulatestranscriptionofauxin-responsivegenesthrough
lators(Sterlingetal.,1997;CobbandReade,2010).Basedonthe the action ofthe TIR1/AFBF-boxproteins, theAux/IAAtran-
chemicalstructuresofthesecompounds,thespatialfeaturesof scriptionalrepressors,andtheauxinresponsefactors(ARFs).The
a hypothetical auxin receptor were predicted (Thimman, 1977). Arabidopsisgenomeencodes6TIR1/AFBs,29Aux/IAAproteins,
Thismarkedthebeginningofwhatturnedouttobeanextended and23ARFs.Ingeneral,theAux/IAAsactbydirectlybindingtothe
searchfortheauxinreceptor. ARFsandrecruitingthecorepressorproteinTOPLESS(TPL)tothe
Auxin has been associated with embryogenesis (reviewed in chromatin(Figure1;Szemenyeietal.,2008;reviewedinGuilfoyle
Jürgens, 1995), tropic responses (Firn and Digby, 1980), organo- andHagen,2007,2012;MockaitisandEstelle,2008;Chapmanand
genesis (Li et al., 2005; De Smet et al., 2010), root development Estelle,2009;WangandEstelle,2014;Guilfoyle,2015).Degrada-
(reviewed in Benjamins and Scheres, 2008), shoot development tionoftheAux/IAArepressorsisacriticaleventinauxinsignaling
(Vernoux et al., 2011), and plant defense (reviewed in Kazan and andrequiresaubiquitinproteinligaseE3calledSCFTIR1/AFB(Gray
Manners, 2009). Understanding how auxin can regulate so many etal.,1999,2001;Ramosetal.,2001).Thesubstraterecognition
diverse physiological and developmental processes is an active subunitofthisE3,theF-boxproteinTIR1(orrelatedAFBprotein),
andexcitingareaofcurrentresearch. wasfirstidentifiedinageneticscreenforauxintransportinhibitor-
Therearethreeknownclassesofauxinreceptors:AUXINBIND- responsemutants(Rueggeretal.,1998).Sincethen,anumberof
INGPROTEIN1(ABP1)(Herteletal.,1972;Jonesetal.,1998;Tromas elegantstudieshaveshownthatauxinpromotesdegradationofthe
et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2014), S-PHASE KINASE-ASSOCIATED Aux/IAA proteins through the SCFTIR1/AFB, in an auxin-dependent
manner (Gray et al., 2001; Dharmasiri et al., 2005a; Kepinski and
Leyser,2005;Tanetal.,2007).TheAux/IAAdegronislocatedina
[email protected]. conserveddomaincalledDomainII(dII).Insteadofcausingasub-
www.plantcell.org/cgi/doi/10.1105/tpc.114.133744 stratemodification,commonlyrequiredforsubstraterecognitionby
10 ThePlantCell
Figure1. SCFTIR1/AFB-BasedAuxinPerceptionandResponse.
(A) Domain structure of the Aux/IAA and ARF proteins. EAR is the ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR-associated amphiphilic repression motif that
interactswiththeTPLcorepressor.ThedIIdomainfacilitatesinteractionwiththeTIR1/AFBproteininresponsetoauxin.ThePB1domainhasboth
positiveandnegativeelectrostaticinterfacesfordirectionalproteininteraction.DBDistheB3DNAbindingdomain,andMRisthemiddleregionthat
determinestheactivityoftheARF.
(B)ActivatingARFscanformdimersthroughtheirDBDsandbindinvertedrepeatAuxREs(Boeretal.,2014).Atlowauxinlevels,theAux/IAAproteins
formmultimerswithARFsandrecruitTPLtothechromatin.NotethatmostAuxREsarenotfoundasinvertedrepeatsinplantgenomes,indicatingthat
ARFsbindtoDNAinconfigurationsotherthanshownhere.
(C) High levels of auxin promote ubiquitination and degradation of Aux/IAAs through SCFTIR1/AFB and the proteasome. ARFs are free to activate
transcriptionoftargetgenes.ThesiteofAux/IAAubiquitinationisarbitrary.Theactualsitesareunknown.Auxinisrepresentedbytheredoval.
manyothercullin-basedE3ligases,auxinenhancestheinteraction SinglemutantsinmembersoftheTIR1/AFBgenefamilyhave,
betweenSCFTIR1/AFBandthedIIbydirectlybindingtoTIR1,dem- atmost,amildauxin-relatedphenotype.Thetir1mutantisauxin
onstratingthatTIR1isthelong-soughtauxinreceptor(Dharmasiri resistant and is slightly shorter than wild-type plants (Ruegger
etal.,2005a,Kepinskiand Leyser2005;reviewedin Skaaretal., etal.,1998).However,higherordermutantswithcombinations
2013). of afb1, afb2, and afb3 in the tir1 mutant background exhibit
SCFTIR1/AFB-BasedAuxinPerception 11
severegrowthdefectsandincreasedauxinresistance.Mostofthe
quadruple tir1 afb1 afb2 afb3 mutants arrest after germination.
Occasionally,tir1afb1afb2afb3plantsareabletogrowbeyondthis
stage but show defects in multiple auxin responses (Dharmasiri
etal.,2005b,Parryetal.,2009).Inaddition,mutationsinotherSCF
subunitslikeCUL1,ASK1,andRBX1causeauxinresistanceand
stabilize the Aux/IAA proteins (Gray et al., 1999, 2001, 2002;
Hellmannetal.,2003;Moonetal.,2007;Gilkerson,etal.,2009).
Recently,twonewtir1mutantswereidentifiedinayeasttwo-hybrid-
basedscreen.Thetir1D170Eandtir1M473Lmutationsincreasethe
affinityofTIR1fortheAux/IAAproteins,whereasplantsexpressing
tir1D170Eandtir1M473Ltransgenesshowanauxinhypersensitive
phenotypeanddevelopmentaldefects(Yuetal.,2013).
STRUCTURALINSIGHTINTOAUXINPERCEPTION
BYSCFTIR1/AFBs
All six members of the TIR1/AFB family have been shown to
functionasauxinreceptors(Dharmasirietal.,2005a,2005b;Parry
et al., 2009; Greenham et al., 2011). Besides the F-box domain,
theseproteinsalsocontainaleucine-richrepeat(LRR)domainwith
18 LRRs. AFB4 and AFB5 proteins are distinct from the other
members of this family in thatthey haveanN-terminalextension
thatisnotpresentinTIR1andAFB1toAFB3.
When the TIR1/AFB proteins were first shown to function as
auxinreceptors,themechanismofauxinperceptionwasunknown.
Later,structuralstudiesrevealedtheelegantwaythatauxinactsto
facilitatetheinteractionbetweenTIR1andtheAux/IAAsubstrate.
Figure2. StructureofTIR1-ASK1inaComplexwithIAAandtheDegron
ThestructureofTIR1wassolvedinacomplexwithASK1,thedII
PeptidefromIAA7.
peptide from the Aux/IAA IAA7, and auxin (Tan et al., 2007; re-
viewed in Calderon-Villalobos et al., 2010) (Figure 2). The TIR1- TIR1-ASK1 structure as described by Tan et al. (2007). ASK1 (green)
interactswithTIR1(red)throughtheF-boxdomain.IAA(blue)ispresent
ASK1 complexis mushroom shaped. Thecap of themushroom,
intheauxinbindingpocketandactstostabilizetheinteractionbetween
includingtheauxinbindingpocket,isformedbytheLRRdomainof
TIR1andthedegronpeptide(palecyan).AsingleInsP6molecule(pale
TIR1.TheF-boxdomaintogetherwithASK1formsthestemofthe
orange)isboundtoTIR1beneaththeauxinbindingpocket.
mushroom.TheLRRsformaslightlytwisted,incompletering-like
solenoidstructureofalternatingsolvent-facinga-helicesandcore-
liningb-strands.ThetopsurfaceoftheLRRdomainhasasingle The six TIR1/AFB proteins are part of small subclade of F-box
proteinswithsevenmembers.Theseventhproteininthefamilyis
pocket for auxin binding (Tan et al., 2007; reviewed in Calderon-
CORONATINEINSENSITIVE1(COI1),knowntobeessentialforthe
Villalobos et al., 2010). Strikingly, the structure of the TIR1-ASK1
response to jasmonic acid (JA), a hormone that is structurally un-
complex does not change substantially upon auxin binding, in-
related to auxin and has a very different role in the plant. Never-
dicatingthatauxindoesnotinduceaconformationalchange.Atthe
theless, there is a striking similarity between the auxin and JA
baseoftheauxinbindingpocketliesaninositolhexakisphosphate
(InsP6)molecule.AlthoughthebiologicalsignificanceofthisInsP6 signalingpathways(Chinietal.,2007;Thinesetal.,2007;Yanetal.,
2007;reviewedinKatsiretal.,2008;PérezandGoossens,2013).In
moleculeisnotknown,ithasbeensuggestedthatitmightactas
the case of JA, degradation of a family of repressors called the
astructuralcofactor(Tanetal.,2007).Structuralstudieswithdif-
JASMONATEZIM(JAZ)proteinsismediatedbyanE3ligasecalled
ferentauxincompoundsrevealedthatthebindingpocketforauxin
SCFCOI1. The interaction between the JAZ proteins and COI1 is
is somewhat promiscuous. Most importantly, these studies re-
mediatedbydirectbindingtotheJAderivativeJA-isoleucine(Thines
vealedthatunlikeanimalhormones,wheretheligandbindingsiteis
etal.,2007;Sheardetal.,2010).Thus,plantshaveevolvedasimilar
located distantfrom theactivesiteofthereceptor,auxinactsas
a“molecularglue”tostabilizetheinteractionbetweenTIR1andthe mechanismtorespondtoverydifferentregulatorymolecules.
Aux/IAAprotein(Tanetal.,2007;reviewed inCalderon-Villalobos
etal.,2010;Skaaretal.,2013).Sofar,thestructureofSCFTIR1has
THEAUXINCORECEPTORMODEL:ANEWWAYTO
beensolvedonlywiththeshortdegronsequencefromtheAux/IAA
THINKABOUTAUXINACTION
proteins(Tanetal.,2007).Itisexpectedthatacompletestructure
ofSCFTIR1withauxinandafull-lengthAux/IAAproteinwillreveal Recently, it was shown that efficient binding of auxin to TIR1
more structural insights into how auxin triggers ubiquitination of requirestheassemblyofacoreceptorcomplexconsistingofTIR1
Aux/IAAproteins. andanAux/IAAprotein(Calderón-Villalobosetal.,2012).Thismay
12 ThePlantCell
besignificantbecausetherearesixTIR1/AFBproteinsand29Aux/ Aux/IAAANDARFGENESACTDOWNSTREAM
IAAproteinsinArabidopsis.Thus,itispossiblethatdifferentcom- OFSCFTIR1/AFBs
binationsofTIR1/AFBandAux/IAAwillhavedifferentbiochemical
properties(Figure3).Indeed,auxinbindingassayswithpurifiedTIR1 The Aux/IAA genes were discovered because some members
arerapidlyinducedbyauxin.Inpea(Pisumsativum)andsoybean
andAux/IAAproteinsshowedthatdifferentcoreceptorcomplexes
have different affinities for auxin (Calderón-Villalobos et al., 2012). (Glycine max), the level of several Aux/IAA transcripts increased
withinafewminutesofauxintreatment(AbelandTheologis,1996;
Forexample,theTIR1-IAA7pairhasaK of10to15nMforIAA,
d reviewed in Hagen and Guilfoyle, 2002). It is important to note,
whileTIR1-IAA12hasaK ofbetween250and300nMforIAA.
d however, that some Aux/IAAs, like IAA28 in Arabidopsis, are not
DifferencesinK appeartobedeterminedprimarilybythedIIse-
d
auxininduced(Roggetal.,2001).
quenceof the Aux/IAAproteins, although other sequences may
Most of the Aux/IAA proteins have four conserved domains.
alsocontribute(Calderón-Villalobosetal.,2012).
Domain I has an ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR ASSOCI-
Localizedregulationofauxinlevelshasakeyroleinanumberof
ATEDAMPHIPHILICREPRESSION(EAR)motifwheretheTPL/
processesincludingpositioningoforganprimordia,maintenanceof
TOPLESS RELATED corepressor binds (Long et al., 2006;
stemcellniches,patterningofthefruit,andabilityofauxintodirect
Szemenyeietal.,2008;Causieretal.,2012).DomainIIcontains
cell division, expansion, and differentiation (Jones et al., 1998;
thedegronsequence,whichinteractsdirectlywiththeTIR1/AFB
Sabatinietal.,1999;Reinhardtetal.,2000;Benkováetal.,2003;Li
et al., 2005; Sorefan et al., 2009; Jurado et al., 2010; Mähönen proteinandauxin.DomainIIIandDomainIVareresponsiblefor
et al., 2014). In the root, direct measurement of auxin levels in dimerizationwithotherAux/IAAproteinsandheterodimerization
differentcelltypes,aswellasthebehaviorofauxinreporters,in- withARFproteins(Ulmasovetal.,1997a).
dicate that auxin levels range widely with anauxin maximum Important insights into the roles of the Aux/IAA genes came
around thequiescentcenteranddecreasing auxinlevelsmoving from genetic studies. Gain-of-function mutations in several of
proximallyfromthequiescentcenteraswellasdistallytowardthe these genes, including IAA1/AXR5, IAA3/SHY2, IAA7/AXR2,
roottip(Peterssonetal.,2009;Vernouxetal.,2011;Brunoudetal., IAA12/BDL,IAA14/SLR,IAA17/AXR3,IAA18/CRANE,IAA19/MSG,
2012;Bandetal.,2014).Recently,celltype-specificgenome-wide andIAA28,leadtostabilizationoftherespectiveproteinbecause
analysis of auxin responses in four different root cell types was theyarenotdegradedbySCFTIR1/AFBs(Rouseetal.,1998;Tianand
reported.Oneofthehighlightsofthisstudywasthatdifferentcell Reed, 1999; Nagpal et al., 2000; Rogg et al., 2001; Fukaki et al.,
typeshavebothdivergentandparalleltranscriptomicresponseto 2002;Tatematsuetal.,2004;Yangetal.,2004;Ueharaetal.,2008;
auxin(Bargmannetal.,2013).Thesestudieshighlightthepresence Ploenseetal.,2009).Thegain-of-functionmutationsareallwithin
ofanauxingradientintherootandthetranscriptionalcomplexity a stretchof fiveconserved amino acids in the dII.The mutations
ofauxinaction.Itispossiblethatdiverseauxincoreceptorsmaybe preventSCFTIR1/AFBsbindingresultinginstabilizationoftheprotein
necessarytointerpretthewiderangeofauxinlevelsthatexistin (Ramos et al., 2001; Dreher et al., 2006). On the other hand, the
theplant.Thus,thecoreceptormechanismcoulddramaticallyex- analysisofloss-of-functionmutantshassofarfailedtorevealro-
pandthedynamicrangeofauxinperception,potentiallyproviding bustmutantphenotypesinArabidopsis,suggestingextensivege-
apartialexplanationforhowauxincontrolssomanydifferentas- neticredundancyamongmembersofthefamily(Remingtonetal.,
pects of plant development (Calderón-Villalobos et al., 2012; Lee 2004;Overvoordeetal.,2005;reviewedinReed,2001).Thisisin
etal.,2014). contrasttothesituationintomato(Solanumlycopersicum)where
several loss-of-function alleles or antisense constructs produce
arobustphenotypesuggestingthatthereislessredundancyinthis
species (Wang et al., 2005; Chaabouni et al., 2009; Bassa et al.,
2012;Dengetal.,2012;Suetal.,2014).
The ARF proteins are B3-type transcription factors. Each of
the 23 ARFs in Arabidopsis have anN-terminal DNA binding do-
main(DBD)similartothatfoundinthetranscriptionfactorFUSCA3
(Ulmasov et al., 1995, 1997b; Luerssen et al., 1998; reviewed in
Liscum and Reed, 2002). The ARFs bind to auxin response ele-
ments(AuxREs),eachwiththecanonical6-bpTGTCTCsequence
inthepromotersofauxin-responsivegenes.Thefirstfourbasesin
the TGTCTC sequence are absolutely required for ARF binding,
while more variation is tolerated in the last two bases (Ulmasov
et al., 1997b, 1999a; Boer et al., 2014; reviewed in Guilfoyle and
Hagen,2007).
BasedonactivityinaprotoplastassaytheARFsaredivided
Figure 3. Different TIR1/AFB-AUX/1AA-ARF Modules May Regulate intoactivatorsandrepressors(reviewedinGuilfoyleandHagen,
DifferentDevelopmentalProcesses. 2012).ARF5,6,7,8,and19proteinshaveamiddleregionthatis
Gln (Q) rich and function as activators. All the rest, except for
SixTIR1/AFBcaninteractwiththe23differentAux/IAAscontainingthedIIto
form numerous coreceptor complexes. Each of the Aux/IAA may interact ARF23, have a middle region rich in serine, proline, or leucine/
with up to 19 ARFs containing Domains III/IV to regulate distinct sets of glycineandarethoughttoactasrepressors,althoughthishas
targetgenesthatcontroldifferentphysiologicalprocessesintheplant. notbeenexperimentallytestedforeverymemberofthisgroup.
SCFTIR1/AFB-BasedAuxinPerception 13
In addition, ARF3, 13, and 17 lack Domains III/IV. ARF23 con- studiesoftheAux/IAAproteins.Expressionofstabilizedforms
sists of a truncated DBD only. Although the ARFs have been of these proteins results in a strong auxin response defect.
classified as either activators or repressors, it is important to However,ifoneofthetwoPB1facesismutated,thisdefectis
notethattheirbehaviorintheplantmaybemuchmorecomplex. strongly ameliorated, implying that the formation of Aux/IAA
FortheactivatingARFs,aworkingmodelforARFregulationis multimersisrequiredforefficientrepression.Sofar,thiseffect
nowwellestablished(Figure1;reviewedinGuilfoyleandHagen, hasonlybeendemonstratedforIAA16,butseemslikelytobe
2007, 2012). At low auxin levels, these ARFs are bound to the general.Thesediscoveriesconstituteamajorrefinementofthe
Aux/IAA proteins, which recruit the TPL corepressor and other auxin-signaling model (Figure 1; Korasick et al., 2014; Nanao
associated chromatin modifying proteins via the EAR motif in etal.,2014).
DomainI,resultingintherepressionofauxin-responsivegenes Inadditiontointeractionsbetweenthemselves,theAux/IAAs
(Tiwari et al., 2001; Szemenyei et al., 2008). At higher auxin andARFshavealsobeenreportedtoregulateandberegulated
levels (Figure 1), Aux/IAAs are ubiquitinated and degraded via byothertranscriptionfactors.AMYBtranscriptionfactor,MYB77,
the 26S proteasome machinery, thus freeing ARFs to activate wasshowntointeractwiththeARF7proteinandcontributetoauxin-
expression of auxin responsive genes (Figure 1). Since the regulated transcription (Shin et al., 2007). In sunflower (Helianthus
phenotype of gain-of-function aux/iaa mutants is caused by annuus),HaIAA27wasshowntobindtotheheatshocktranscription
stabilizationoftherespectiveAux/IAAproteinsandconstitutive factorHaHSFA9andrepressitsactivityduringseeddevelopment.
repression ofARF proteins, loss-of-function ARF activator mu- AsinthecaseoftheARFs,auxinactedtorelieverepressionofthe
tantsshouldhaveasimilarphenotypetoAux/IAAgain-of-function HaHSFA9protein(Carrancoet al.,2010).In anotherrecentreport,
mutants.Thisisthecaseforseveralmutants,suchasiaa12/bdland phosphorylation of ARF7 and ARF19 by BRASSINOSTEROID IN-
arf5/mp, both of which have a rootless phenotype (Hardtke and SENSITIVE2 (BIN2) was shown to suppress their interaction with
Berleth,1998;Hamannetal.,1999;Weijersetal.,2006). Aux/IAAsandthisinturnenhancedtranscriptionofLATERALOR-
Recently,alarge-scaleanalysisofAux/IAAandARFsinterac- GANBOUNDARIESDOMAIN16(LBD16)andLBD29duringlateral
tionswasdoneusingsystemiclarge-scaleyeasttwo-hybridassays rootinitiation,independentofauxinperception(Choetal.,2014).
andbimolecularfluorescencecomplementationassays.Themajor Despitetheserecentadvances,ourunderstandingofhowthe
conclusionofthisstudywasthatAux/IAA-Aux/IAAandAux/IAA- ARFs work remains quite superficial compared with fungal and
activatorARFinteractionsarecommon,whereasinteractionsbe- animalsystems.Forexample,wearejustbeginningtolearnabout
tweenARFsorbetweenAux/IAAsandrepressorARFswereless thecoactivatorsandcorepressorsthatcollaboratewiththeARFsto
common(Vernouxetal.,2011).However,arecentstudyprovides regulate transcription. Similarly, the chromatin states associated
genetic evidence for an interaction between ARF9, characterized withARFfunctionareunknown.Finally,thefunctionandactivityof
as a repressor, and IAA10, suggesting either the function of the therepressorARFsispoorlyunderstood.
ARFsismorecomplexorthattheAux/IAAscaninteractwithre-
pressorARFsinvivo(Rademacheretal.,2012).
DEGRADATIONOFAux/IAAISCRUCIALFOR
Recent structural studies of ARFs have led to exciting new
AUXINACTION
insightintothemolecularfunctionoftheARFandAux/IAAproteins
(Boer et al., 2014; Korasick et al., 2014; Nanao et al., 2014). Be- Understanding how Aux/IAA proteins are degraded is a crucial
causetheARFproteinsreadilyformhomodimersthroughDomains step in unraveling how auxin triggers diverse developmental
III/IV,thisbecamethefocusofstudiesonARFinteraction.However responses.DomainIIoftheAux/IAAsisthoughttobetheprimary
DomainIII/IV-independentARFdimerizationwasreportedaslong determinant for degradation by SCFTIR1/AFB (Gray et al., 2001;
ago as 1999 (Ulmasov et al., 1999b). More recently, Boer et al. Ramosetal.,2001;Dreheretal.,2006).However,inadditiontothe
(2014)solvedthestructureoftheDNAbindingdomainsfromARF5 DomainIIdegronmotif,aconservedlysinebetweenDomainIand
anditsdistantparalogARF1incomplexwithagenericAuxREel- DomainIIcontributestoAux/IAAdegradation(Ouelletetal.,2001;
ementandshowedthattheDNAbindingdomainshomodimerizeto Dreheretal.,2006).Itisinterestingtonotethatthehalf-lifeofthe
generatecooperativeDNAbinding(Boeretal.,2014).Furthermore, Aux/IAAsvarieswidely.Thehalf-lifeofIAA7is;10min,whilethe
this study proposed that ARF1 and ARF5 differ in the spacing half-lifeofIAA28is80min,despitethefactthatthesetwoproteins
between adjacent binding sites, potentially contributing to ARF have an identical degron sequence. These results indicate that
specificity. determinants outside of Domain II also contribute to degradation
FurtherinsightwasgainedbystructuralstudiesoftheC-terminal rate.Ontheotherhand,IAA31,whichhasadegenerateDomainII,
domain of ARF5 (Nanao et al., 2014) and ARF7 (Korasick et al., withouttheconservedlysine,hasahalf-lifeof>20h,althoughthis
2014).ThisworkrevealedthatDomainsIIIandIV,presentinmost drops to ;4 h after auxin treatment. A small group of Aux/IAAs,
oftheAux/IAAandARFs,formaPhoxandBem1p(PB1)domain namely, IAA20, IAA30, and IAA32-34, do not have the classical
asfirstproposedbyGuilfoyleandHagen(2012).ThePB1domains Domain II, but overexpression of IAA20 and IAA30 show strong
provide both positive and negative electrostatic surfaces for di- auxin-related defects implying that these proteins repress auxin
rectional protein interaction (reviewed in Guilfoyle, 2015).Bio- regulatedtranscription(SatoandYamamoto,2008).
chemicalanalysisconfirmedthatamutationthataffectsoneor Recently, a synthetic biology approach has been applied to
the other of the surfaces in the ARF protein still permits dimeri- thestudyofauxinsignaling(Havensetal.,2012;Pierre-Jerome
zation withitselforanAux/IAAprotein, whereas an ARF protein etal.,2014).Byengineeringthecoreauxin-signalingpathwayinto
withsubstitutionsinbothfacesisunabletoformadimer(Korasick budding yeast, these workers developed a novel and powerful
etal.,2014;Nanaoetal.,2014).Additionalinsightwasgainedby platform for studies of the pathway. Using this system, they
14 ThePlantCell
confirmedthattheAux/IAAproteinsaredegradedatverydifferent
rates, but in addition, the rate is dependent on the TIR1/AFB
protein (Havens et al., 2012). More importantly, the system en-
abledthemtodefineaminimalauxinresponsecircuitsufficientto
recapitulateauxin-inducedtranscriptioninyeast.Bybuildingand
testingcircuitscomposedofdifferentAux/IAAandARFproteins,
they were able to show that the behavior of the circuit varied
significantlydepending on thecircuitcomponents.Furthermore,
circuits with multiple coexpressed Aux/IAAs displayed unique
behaviors that may be relevant during plant development. This
workprovidesanewapproachfordissectingauxinsignalingand
demonstrates the key role of Aux/IAAs in tuning the dynamic
patternofauxinresponse(Pierre-Jeromeetal.,2014).
Inarelatedstudy,Shimizu-MitaoandKakimoto(2014)tested
theauxin-dependentdegradationofallArabidopsisAux/IAAsin
combinationwithTIR1orAFBinyeast.TheyfoundthatTIR1and
AFB2,butnotAFB1,orAFB3-5wereeffectiveinAux/IAAdegra-
dation in the yeast system. All Aux/IAAs, except those lacking
DomainII(IAA20,IAA30,IAA32,andIAA34),weredegradedinan
auxin-dependentmanner.Asinearlierstudies(Calderón-Villalobos
et al., 2012),theeffective auxin concentration for Aux/IAA degra-
dation depended on the identity of both the Aux/IAA and TIR1/
AFB2protein(Shimizu-MitaoandKakimoto,2014).
Figure4. RegulationoftheTIR1/AFBPathway.
ARF-mediated regulation of the Aux/IAA genes constitutes a robust
REGULATORYLOOPSINAUXINSIGNALING
negative feedback loop. Other pathways may regulate transcription of
auxinresponsegenesinbothapositiveandnegativemanner.Forex-
Regulatorycomplexityisarecurringthemeinplantdevelopment,
ample, the cytokinin responsive transcription factor ARR1 promotes
soitisnotsurprisingthatfeedbackandregulatoryloopsexistinthe
transcriptionofIAA3intheroot,resultingindownregulationoftheARF
auxin-signalingpathway(Figure4).Themoststrikingoftheseisthe
targetPIN1.Thisresultsinachangeinauxindistributionthataffectscell
negative feedback loop generated by auxin-induced transcription differentiation(DelloIoioetal.,2008).Inaddition,otherpathwaysmay
oftheAux/IAAgenes.Clearlythisfeedbackloopwillresultinrapid act directly on the ARFs. For example, the BIN2 kinase regulates the
dampening of auxin response upon auxin treatment. However, interactionbetweenARF7andAux/IAAbydirectlyphosphorylatingthe
giventhatthekineticsofauxinregulationofAux/IAAsiscomplex, ARF(Choetal.,2014).
a complete understanding of this regulatory system will require
additionalexperimentsinconjunctionwithamodelingapproach.
Itislikelythatmanyadditionalregulatorynodesthatinvolvethe
Apart from the negative regulatory loop involving the Aux/
IAAs, members of the auxin efflux carrier PIN-FORMED (PIN) Aux/IAAsandARFwillbeidentifiedgoingforward(Figure4).
familywerealsoshowntobeundercontroloftheAux/IAAsand
ARFs(Vietenetal.,2005).Ascellularauxinlevelsrise,PINgene
THEEVOLUTIONARYHISTORYOFAUXINSIGNALING
expressionincreases,resultinginmoreauxineffluxandareduction
inauxinlevels(reviewedinAdamowskiandFriml,2015).Thus,this Colonization of land by plants was a major event in evolution.
regulatory circuit contributes to auxin homeostasis. Among the However,thetimeatwhichauxinsignalingemergedisnotclear
features of this regulation is a striking compensatory mechanism (reviewedinDeSmetandBeeckman,2011).Theauxin-signaling
thatmayacttostabilizeauxingradients.Inthissystem,thelossof pathwayisconservedinlandplants.GenesencodingAux/IAA,
aPINproteinresultsinanincreaseincellularauxinlevels.Thisin ARF, and TIR1 homologs are present within the genomes of
turn causes the ectopic expression of other PIN proteins, thus themossPhyscomitrellapatensandthelycophyteSelaginella
compensatingfortheoriginalPINdeficiency(Vietenetal.,2005).In moellendorffii(Lauetal.,2009;Paponovetal.,2009;reviewedin
addition, accumulation of auxin during de novo organ formation De Smetand Beeckman, 2011;Finet and Jaillais, 2012).In the
leadstorearrangementsinthesubcellularpolarlocalizationofPIN case of P. patens, genetic studies have shown that the mech-
auxintransporters.Thiseffectiscellspecific,independentofPIN anism of auxin signaling is very similar to that of angiosperms
transcription, and involves the Aux/IAA-ARF signaling pathway (Priggeetal.,2010;Lavyetal.,2012).Thepresenceofauxinin
(Saueretal.,2006). algal species has been reported, but the physiological signifi-
ThePINsalsofactorintoanotherauxin-dependentregulatory canceofthisisnotclear.InthecaseofChlorophyta,adivisionof
loopthataffectsbehaviorofcellsintherootmeristem.DelloIoio the green algae, no orthologs of TIR1/AFB, Aux/IAA, and ARFs
et al. (2008) showed that the cytokinin response factor ARR1 werefound(Paponovetal.,2009;reviewedinLauetal.,2009;De
activates transcription of the Aux/IAA gene SHY2/IAA3. The Smet and Beeckman, 2011; Finet and Jaillais, 2012). A recent
IAA3proteininturnrepressestranscriptionofPIN1resultingin reportofa draft genome sequence of thefilamentous terrestrial
achangeinauxindistributionthatpromotescelldifferentiation. alga Klebsormidium flaccidum indicates that this species lacks
SCFTIR1/AFB-BasedAuxinPerception 15
aTIR1-likeauxinreceptorbutdoeshaveotherauxin-relatedpro- phyllotaxy,lateralbranching,androotgrowth(Reinhardtetal.,2003;
teins such as ABP1, AUXIN RESISTANT1, and PIN (Hori et al., Jönsson et al., 2006; Shinohara et al., 2013; Band et al., 2014;
2014).ItisalsointerestingtonotethatmostoftheSCF-dependent Mähönenetal.,2014).Thisinsightfulapproachwillbecomeeven
planthormonesignalingcomponents,suchasTIR1,COI1,andGA morepowerfulasthemodelsbecomeincreasinglyparameterized
INSENSITIVEDWARF1,aremissinginK.flaccidumgenome(Hori byexperimentaldata.
etal.,2014).
FUTUREDIRECTIONS
USEOFAUXIN-INDUCIBLEDEGRONSASATOOLIN
Auxin plays a role almost every aspect of plant development.
ANIMALSYSTEMS
Although the general framework of auxin action has been estab-
In the last several years, SCFTIR1/AFB and the Aux/IAA proteins lished,thespecificelementsinvolvedineachdevelopmentalsignal
remaintobediscovered.BecausetheAux/IAAproteinsarecentral
haveprovidedthebasisforanovelmethodofregulatingprotein
and dynamicregulatorsofauxinsignaling,furtherstudiesoftheir
levels in non-plant species. This system is called the auxin-
role in auxin perception, their interactions with the ARF proteins,
inducibledegronsystem(Nishimuraetal.,2009;Hollandetal.,
and their ultimate effect on the transcriptional output will be an
2012;Kankeetal.,2012;Farretal.,2014;NishimuraandKanemaki,
important way forward. The ability of the Aux/IAAs to form auxin
2014;Samejimaetal.,2014).AlleukaryotespossessSCFubiquitin
coreceptorswithTIR1/AFBsfurtherexpandsthedynamicrangeof
ligases, and the architecture of Arabidopsis TIR1, including the
F-box domain,is sufficiently conserved to allow assembly into an auxin perception. In addition, recent exciting studies show that
SCFTIR1complexinyeastandanimals.Whenaproteinofinterestis ABP1functionsasacellsurface-basedauxinreceptor(Chenetal.,
2001;Chenetal.,2012;Xuetal.,2014).Howauxinperceptionat
fusedtotheAux/IAAdegron,calledtheauxin-induceddegroninthis
thecellsurfaceandinthenucleusarecoordinatedisanimportant
context,andintroducedintoyeastcellsexpressingTIR1,thetagged
outstandingquestion(Tromasetal.,2013;Paqueetal.,2014).Fi-
proteinwillbedegradedinanauxin-dependentmanner(Nishimura
nally,theeffectsofauxinoncellcycleregulationmaybemediated
et al., 2009). The system provides a rapid and, more importantly,
in part by SCFSKP2A, which binds to auxin in a cell-free assay
reversiblewaytoregulateproteinlevels.Theauxin-inducibledegron
(Juradoetal.,2010).Discoveringhowinformationfromthesedif-
systemhasbeenadaptedforanumberofvertebratecelltypesand
ferent perception mechanisms is integrated during plant de-
isprovingtobeausefultoolforawiderangeofstudies
velopmentwillbeanexcitingchallengeforthefuture.
NEWTECHNOLOGIESTODISSECTTHE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AUXIN-SIGNALINGPATHWAY
M.S.andR.B.thankRebeccaDicksteinforcriticallyreadingthearticle
Asmentionedabove,thereappearstobeextensiveredundancy
andforhelpfulsuggestions.Thisworkwassupportedbygrantsfromthe
inboththeARFandAux/IAAfamiliesofproteins.Consequently,
HowardHughesMedicalInstitute,theGordonandBettyMooreFounda-
theroleofeachAux/IAAandARFproteinhasnotbeendefined
tion,andtheNationalInstitutesofHealth(GrantGM43644).
(Okushima et al., 2005; Overvoorde et al., 2005). Because the
creationofhigherordermutants bygeneticcrossingisatime-
consuming process, the emergence of precise genome editing AUTHORCONTRIBUTIONS
tools like CLUSTERED REGULARLY INTERSPACED SHORT
Allauthorscontributedtowritingthearticle.
PALINDROMICREPEAT(CRISPR)-CRISPRASSOCIATEDSYSTEM
(Cas9)isawelcomedevelopment(Congetal.,2013;Malietal.,
2013). The CRISPR-Cas9 system has been successfully used
Received October 29, 2014; revised December 14, 2014; accepted
to create multiple mutants in a mouse model in a short time
December26,2014;publishedJanuary20,2015.
(Wang et al., 2013). Several reports of successful precise ge-
nome editing in Arabidopsis and other plants using CRISPR-
Cas9areverypromising(Lietal.,2013;Fengetal.,2014;Jiang
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