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S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biod1vers1ty in Arab Countries 129
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Threats to Biodiversity io Arab Countries
s~Aj.i~ Samir I. Ghabbour
Abstract
Very linle thought has been given to threats facing biodiversity in the hot
arid regions of the world. llus type of cnvuonmcnt prevails m the largest part
of Arab countries, giving the false impression tha~ their b1ocLvers1ty must be
unimportant. Some people even say: "What IS mere lO deserts that is worth
conserving?". Nevertheless. many plant and arumal domcst1ca11ons took place
in Arab countries and many of the wild relatives of domesticated species still
exist in their centres of origin m semi-desert ;;.re.as However, these arc
gradually disappearing as a result of excessive resoJrce cxplo1tat1on. There arc
also substantial forests still remaining on the fnngas of the Arab World that arc
threatened with rapid destruction Many desert plants have mcd1cmal properties
that give them a high com.men.:1al value, the reason for their uncontrolled
collection by trad1t1onal herbalists. who know very well how to use them
Much less known is the extra--0rdmary physiolog1lf1 cLvers1ry of small desert
animals, adapted by vanous mechanisms to he<it and drought They arc
1
therefore of high potential value for med1cme, such as for the treatment of
diabetes and kidney trouble: Tiiey, too, are collectC(I by foreign phannaceut1cal
companies. but destrucuon of thcir habitats is even a greater threat for their
survival. The most serious threat to larger desert animals 1s the hunung
caravans conducted by West Asians who roam the deserts to shoot everything
on sight. The conservation movement 1s steadily growing. and the press is
trying to alert the public about the damage such erosion of b1ocLvers1ry may
cause to human welfare and to the sustai.nab1hry of development
National and international efforts for the management and conservauon of
b1od1versity in Arab countnc.:s include public awareness through the media..
I
H. N. Barakat & A. K. Hcga1.y (eds.)
Rtv1ews tn Hcology: Dtsert C' onsuvarwn uncl Dev<'lupmenr
Printed by Mctropolc, Cairo. Egypt 1997
•\
,I
130 S. Ghabbo11r: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries
S. Ghabbo11r: Threats to B1od1vers1ty 1n Arab Countries
131
scientific meetings, national committees, national and regional strategies,
promulgation of laws, research and training, establishment of nature and known by the whole world rather than on nature reserves of dubious value as
tounstic assets, because of their meagre wildlife content. 1f comparc:d with the
biosphere reserves. But much more is needed, such as higher levels of taxation
for the utilization of wildlife resources (collecting, hunting, etc.), stricter richness and attractiveness of East Afncan National Parks As tourist
attractions, any national park m any Arab country (with the el<ccpt1on perhaps
governmental control over these resources, national and regional charters based
on similar regional and international charters elsewhere (particularly in · of the Sudan). could never compete with those of Kenya or Tanzania. 1t was
said. .
Europe), adherence to international agreements (Bonn, Bern, CITES, Ramsar, \·
etc.) as well a.s intensification of currently on-going activities. In spite of this resistance, several Arab countnes part1c1patc:d 1n the first
ever attempt at protecting nature m the region. by attending a UNESCO
Introduction meeting in Oe1ru1 111 I \)'i'i fa:olog1sts cu11111111c<l to :;tud~ the desert
To many outside observers, nature conservation in Arab countries, let alone environment. its flora, and 1ts fauna, regardless of the prevailing negat1v1s11c
attitudes In 1968. Arab North African countries signed, w11h other African
biodiversity conservation, seems an activity not given enough priority in
national land-use planning, or in the priorities of international organizations countries, the Algiers Treaty for Conservation of Nature and Natural Rc:sourccs
under the umbrella of the Organ1zauon of Afncan Un11y (OAU) And then
(such as IUCN), and of other envirorunental groups concerned with these
issues. Until 1974, no Arab country was mentioned in the annual UN List of came the Stockholm Conference m 1972. which ushered m a new era of
Nature Reserves and Protected Areas. Nevertheless, the tradition of nature enviroM1c:ntal awareness and of understanding of conservation m.'Cds 111 the
region.
conservation, or rather conservation of natural resources, is not alien to the
Arab culture, as witnessed by the Hema system practised in the Arabian
Peninsula before and after Islam, the Ghuta orchards of Damascus, the oases of Charactuistics of biodiversity in Arab countries
Morocco and Andalusia, etc. (Ghabbour, 1975). In modem times, however, In the following lines we shall try to give a brief summary of the
the introduction of firearms, and the spirit of profiteering, population pressures, characteristics of b1odivers1ty 1n Arab countnes. with special emphasis on its
economic aspirations, have destroyed much of the natural heritage in the origins, its value, and its conservation
Arabian environment, be it medicinal plants, trees for charcoal production or
game animals. Recently, the oil wealth of west Asians has enticed them into Origins of biodiversity in the Arab region
organizing large hunting campaigns to deprive neighbouring countries from
The geographical position of Arab cou11tric) ha:. had an unport:uit role in the
whatever wild animal resources they still possess. These <lifferent types of
intcnnediate nature of their b1od1vers11) The Old World's b1ogcograph1c
ecosystem impoverishment greatly harmed the inception of a nascent regions arc four:
environmental movement in the early fifties when people used to exclaim:
"What is there in the Arab desert environment that is worth conserving?". 1-The Palaearclic Region, extending from the lbcnau Pc111n~ula to the Far East
Other important factors that contributed to such an attitude among decision from west to east, and from I.he Arctic co southern Europe, but also the:
Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb, a narrow stnp along the Afro
makers as well as the general public was the overwhelming cultural heritage of
Arab countries, particularly in countries such as Lebanon, Syria, Egypt and Mediterraneari coast from southern Tunisia to the Palestinian coast. and the
Tunisia. It was said that if spending on nature conservation has to be justified western parts of Lebanon and Syna, as well as northern Iraq
2-The Ethiopian Region, constituting Afnca south of the Sahara, plus Yemen
as an asset for tourist attraction, our monuments are quite enough and we
and Madagascar.
should spend money on enhancing the attractiveness of our historic monuments
132 S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries
S. Ghabbo11r: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countnes
133
3-The Oriental Region, extending from Oman to South East Asia, and
and animals that Neolithic man in the Arab World drew the plants and arumals
separated from the Palaearctic Region by the Caucasus and Himalayan
which he domesticated, and which were spread from the Arab World to all
Mountain chains.
other parts in the neighbouring biogeographac regions. and nlso to the New
4-The Australasian Region, constituting Australia., New Zealand, and the
World.
Pacific Ocean Islands. .,
Species living in the Arabian deserts are species that have boen naturally ' ..
Arab countries are bordered by the Palaearctic from the north, the Ethiopian
selected from the pool of species of the three neighbouring biogeographacaJ 4 ·'·
from the south, and the Oriental from the east. The Oriental Region has limited
extensions into the inner lands of Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Jordan. The regions, that ~upied these lands in earlier tamt:s, .and that have become .y~·
adapted over millions of years to the prevailing harsh dcst:rt conditions. There
Ethiopian Region also has some obvious extensions into the Tibesti and Hoggar
are also many species that have become isolated for such a long tame that they
Mountains in the middle parts of the Great Sahara Desert, in southern Libya
have evolved into new species that have remamed in the very small spots where
and in southern Algeria, as well as in southern Morocco, besides its extension
they evolved, i.e. they have evolved into unique endemic species of very linuted
into northern Sudan. Naturally, Mauritania, the Sudan, Djibouti, Somalia, and
distribution. The longer the isolation of these spots as, the more likely we
the Comores, belong to the Ethiopian Region. The lands of eastern Yemen and
should expect to find endemic species therein, providod of course that they
western Oman represent the separation between the Ethiopian and the Oriental survive till we find them.
Regions.
It has been found from earlier biogeographic studies that certain Palaearcuc
The Sahara Desert, and its extension into the Arabian Peninsula, is a
species exist in North Afncan oases, away from the Mediterranean coast, such I .
meeting place of elements from the Ethiopian and the Palaearctic Regions, with
as in some oases of northern Libya and northern Egypt. and even as far south
some rare intrusive elements from the Oriental Region, in varying
as Bilma Oasis in Chad, and an the T1bcst1 and l loggar Some Etruopaan
combinations. It can thus be considered a transitional region, where elements
species, on the other hand, arc aJso found m the oases of northern Egypt and
may mix together, but it is considered neither a distinct biogcographic region
northern Libya, very near to the Mediterranean coast It is noteworthy that
nor a region divided among all three neighbouring regions.
most of the Palaearctic species that succeeded an reaching the middle of the
If the Arabian desert is not a distinct biogcographic region, its biodiversity Sahara are terrestrial The possible exception may be the amphibians of
is certainly distinct just because it combines biotic elements from three different Morocco, wtuch are all Palaearc!lc (Pasteur and Bons, 1959), and a fc:w serna
and distinct biogeographic regions. This is a unique phenomenon not met with aquatic oligochaetes. By contrast, most Eth1op1an species that succocdod an ..
' .
elsewhere at the frontiers of other biogeographic regions. The Palaearctic penetrating the Sahara and in reaching the Mediterranean coast are aquatic,
Region is more or less sharply separated from the Oriental Region in Middle such as in the case of ohgochactcs (Ghabbour, 1996 a&. b) and dragonflies
and East Asia. Likewise, the Oriental Region is also more or less sharply (Dumont 1980), which wall be discussed further on m some more detail This
separated from the Australasian Region by the famous Wallacian line, and the success was due to the use of the Nile stream as a m1grat1on route from south to
Ncarctic Region is sharply separated from the Neotropical Region in North north, as well as the occurrence of long pcnods of high rainfall dunng the
America. Only in the Arab region do we find a very large region of mixing of Pluvial Periods of earlier geologic pcnods, such as m the case of the dwarf
co-existing elements from three highly spacious biogeographic regions. This is crocodiles of the Hoggar. But Etluop1an tcrrestnal animals also dad migrate far
why the biodiversity of Arab countries is so important, and why it is rich and into the north, such as the African cheetah which was discovered a few decades
varied in spite of the small absolute numbers of species, relative to other ago in the Qattara Depression an northern Egypt, and as also found an Libya,
regions in the north (in Europe). in the south (in tropical Africa), or in the East Algeria, and Morocco, but not an Turus1a North African chcc..-uh popul:>t•r-~
(in the Indian sub-<:<>ntinent). It is from this unique varied mixture of plants arc completely isolated from those m Central or East Africa
..
134 S. Ghabbour. Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries
S <i hnbbour: Threats to B1od1vcrs11y in Arab Countncs
135
In the case of plants of the steppe belt of the northern Sahara, Le Houerou
e'\plana11on for thi: s11111lan1~ of ma.ii~ spi:c.:1c.:s of !hi: E1h1op1an and the Oriental
( 1995) remarked that these have two main centres rich in endemic species, the'
b1ogcograph11.: regions, where we can sec san111:tn11cs m elephants. leopards,
first in Egypt and Libya, and the other in Algeria and Morocco, separated by
rhinoceroses, hippopocam1, related pnmates and lughcr apes, etc
the desert of Syrte, where the Sahara touches upon the sea coast. Most of the
plants of the North African desert came to it along terrestrial bridges The pluvial conditions of the Miocene and tJ1e early Pliocenc ..) Nerc followed
coMecting it to the neighbouring lands. We can distinguish lrano-Turanian by dry conditions, and much of the ram forest disappeared so that the fauna of
elements from the east, Deccan elements from the south-east, African from the African forests was isolated from that of the Asian one But this Pliocene dry
south, Andalusian from the north-west, Sicilian from the north, and finally period did not last for a long time and was followed by another ra.my period.,
Euro-Alpine elements from the north-east. North African desert plants comprise whereby the ram forest started to extend ag:un These changes did nor affect
about 55% of Mediterranean origin, 35% of tropical origin, and the rest of only mammals. but also other vertcbratl.!s and 1hc invertebrates as well. With
Asiatic origin (Le Houerou, I 995). the end of the Plioccnc. about two million years ago. great di:mgcs m the global
The same aspect is observed about animal life. The Asiatic bear, lion, and cluuate occurred, resulting 111 tlu: famous four Ice Ages. which ended about
20,000 to 11,000 years ago. These four Ice Ages (Glac1als), and the
auroches, existed in Syria and Palestine in historical times, and the wolf may
lnterglaciaJs which alternated with lhem, coincided w1lh a number of Pluvial
have crossed occasionally into Sinai, but many reptiles of Asiatic origin
and Inter-pluvial pcnods, exceeding four. in the Middle East and North Africa,
populate the Eastern Desert of Egypt. At the same time, many Ethiopian
and these climatrc vic1ss1tudes explain rhe pr~scni day d1stnbut1on of the flora
species extend in Egypt along the Red Sea mountain chain to as far as Suez in
and fauna of NortJr Africa and the rest of the Arab region (cf Claudsley
the north, and penetrate into Palestine along the Wadi Araba, which is an
Thompson, 1969)
extension of the Rift Valley and is almost totally populated by Ethiopian
species. The question now is how and when did the migrations of plants and Several species of plants and animals m1grdlc<l from Europe to North Afnca
animals from outside the Arab World come into it? To answer this question, and to the Levant, to escape glacial condl!1ons The fomut1on of tlie ice shcxts
we must look into the rather recent palaeoclimates and the geological history of
In the boreat latitudes resulted in a general global cool111g of climate by about
the Arab World in general and of North Africa in particular. Because this
5°C, higher rainfall m some parts, and a lowenng of sea levels The climate of
question has been discussed elsewhere (Ghabbour, 1996 a & b), it is mentioned
the Arab World was tliereforc: more or less similar to \he clunate of soutliem
only briefly here and the reader is referred to these papers for more detail.
Europe now, and its shore Imes were more extended, so that land bndgcs across
In order to find out how the species of plants and animals presently existing the Mediterranean appeared and facilitated plant and animal m1grat1ons. The
in the Arab World reached the sites where they arc found now, we must go Saharo-Arab1an desert 1s bd1evcd to have lx."Cn a large grassland "h1ch allowed
back to the relatively recent geological past of the region and the succession of easy 111tcm11ngling of European, As1a.n. and Afncan b1ot;1 It cnablc<l t11c former
Pluvial and Inter-pluvial Periods that occurred m it since the Miocene. to reach the T1bcsti and the I loggar Mountains. and the latter to reach the
Scientists can now distinguish between two types of fauna in the Ethiopian Mcdl!erranean coast. It 1s certain tliat the Plc1s1ocenc:-l loloccne Pluvial periods.
Region of Africa south of the Sahara; the forest fauna and the savannah fauna, coinciding m a way with the last (Wunn) Glacial \\ere of much more hm1t«I
1 which is apparently more recent in its origination. During the Miocene Period effect than those of the Pl1ocenc, as shown by the map of d1s1nbutwn of fossils
(25 million to 12-15 million years ago), the equatorial rain forest covered most of large mammals of the Neolitli1c penod (Allard-Huard, 1994 ). wh1c.:h does not
of Africa. This great forest extended into the Arabian Peninsula, lnd1a, and go northwards beyond tlie Tropic of Cancer, excep1 m Fayoum and C'yrena.ica,
south east Asia in one continuous and homogeneous unit. Thus plants and helped evidently by being carried by the Nile mto the Mediterranean This
animals were almost similar all through this immense space. This is the indicates that even dunng the supposedly rclat1vclv wet Ncohtli1c ocnc"
cond1t1ons for the foss1hz.at1on of larger mammals were r<'' f-.,. ., " r- _
136 S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries S Ghabbour: Threats to B1od1versity in Arab Countncs 137
the Tropic of Cancer, and that whatever rainfall there was, was due to the 5- nsks. their locations, their types, their intens1t1cs. and their 1mmmencc
summer monsoon rather than to the winter Mediterranean rainfall regime.
One recently suggested methodology 1s through GAP analysis (Scott et al.
Moreover, it must also be concluded that the large number of desert biota
1993 ). whereby areas can be 1dc::nt1fied that can serve as preserves for
wonderfully adapted to desert life in the Arab region must have been there since
biological diversity. A series of smaller preserves are thought of as to be as
the very long Pliocene and perhaps earlier, and not just from the relatively
maintaining biodiversity in one large preserve, ospec1ally 1f they are connected
shorter Pleistocene Inter-pluvials.
by corridors. Jfreserves must be selected to protect b1od1vers1ty for long penods
in the future (Anderson.et al. . 1993) Preserving ma.x1mum biological diversity
The hot spots concept
in a given biological domain will require a reserve network which includes
The concept of "hot spots" becomes of utmost importance in the context of every possible species for the longest penod of 11me This is called "permanent
Arab countries for the management of their biodiversity resources. There are protection". In this methodology algorithms arc used that define the smallest
several definitions for the tenn "hot spots" depending on what is needed by the number of sites which would mclude all the species to be preserved (Margules
person (or organization) using it. Here, we shall adopt the simple working . et al. . I 91SIS).
definition given by Myers ( 1990), which he assumed could serve as a key
From the viewpoint of biodiversity conservation 1n Arab countnes, a few
contribution to conservation strategies. This definition is as follows:
remarks may be added to this approach. It is necdkss to emphasize or to repeat
Hot spots are areas that that the Saharo-Arabian desert 1s an immense hot and dry and area, the largest
of its kind in the world. This desert may be poor in absolute number of species.
(a) feature exceptional concentrations of species with high levels of
but they have two remarkable features·
endemism, and
(b) face exceptional threats of destruction. 1- Those species that are present and which have survived for thousands,
perhaps millions, of years. are ccrtamly very hardy and can tolerate
It would be preferable to add, in the case of Arab countries, every spot
extremes of temperature. from below zero to more than 50°C, and water
where there are threatened habitats or species. In fact, every spot with greenery
in Arab countries, is practically a hot spot, and an endangered hot spot for that availability from complete desiccation to mundahon Such extremes arc not
met with by other species in other b1ogeograph1c regions
m~ner.
2- Desert Sp<.'Cies may be fow, hut they arc certarnh of an e'\et'pl1lmal 4ualtt~
Identification of areas to be protected requires setting priorities and listing
111ey produce many substances of s~onda~ mc1:1tx)lt~m that hdp them in
areas of high and not so high biodiversity, in an order of urgency, showing their adaptations. They were the pool of mos! of the domcst1cati:d plants and
which are to be earmarked for immediate protection and which can be left to animals upon which the world economy now depends. and the wild relatives
wait for a while. After completion of literature surveys, of museum specimens,
still exist in some hot spots. lkcause of their economic value, 1t 1s popularly
and of exploratory field excursions, GIS systems will provide opportunities to
said that they are good either for food (1f not poisonous). or for medicine (1f
manage the large amounts of data that are necessary, and that are stored and they are). ..
manipulated in a suitably structured data base. Through a series of overlay
maps, data can be manipulated to show: Species in the Saharo-Arab1an desert may be fewer than elsewhere. but thC) I
an: of an exceptional quality Therefore, the prohlilmat1411e of b1od1vers1ty
I -areas' of high species concentration,
conservation in Arab countries should be fonnulatai as one of quality rather
2-ofendcmism,
than of sheer numbers, as usually done for other reg10."\S of the world '~' ..
3-rare species,
should thm.k of numbers of species threatened as rel:\ted •n •
1
4-unique habitats, and
'
.
138 S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries
S. Ghabbour: Threats to li1odivers1ty in Arab Countries
139
species present and of their quality, and number of habitats threatened as
related to number and quality of habitats suitable for life. The loss of say 10 perhaps used to harbour), a species of a large aquatic oligochaete (a rcfatlvc of
species in a desert habitat with l 00 species is l 0%, equivalent to the loss of earthworms, but living in mud under water), called Alma n1!011ca. d.tscovcred in
400 species in a tropical forest with.4,000 species. Unfortunately, international the Nile in 1855 and m Bahanya Oasis m 1971 (Ghabbour, 1976). It eXJsts
only in the Nile Valley between the Delta and Khartoum, and 1s one of I 2
organii.ations may be quite alanncd at the loss of 400 species in the Amazon
species of the genus spread in tropical Africa (Jamieson and Ghabbour, 1969).
forest, but not at the loss of 10 desert species, although the two cues arc
equivalent. The sudden and instantaneous loss of 400 species in the Amazon The occurrence of A. mlotlca is the only record of its presence outside the Nile
Valley. A recent article on the status of Baha.riya Oasis of a JOUmalistJc but
forest, out of say 4,000 (10%). may be unlikely, and even if it happens, it will
rather sympathetic accent appeared m the Cano English language monthly
not be destructive to the forest ecosystem, but the irreversible loss of 10 desert
Egypt Today, designed for the Anglophone commuruty in Egypt, and for
species, out of 100 (also 10%). is highly likely, and very destructive. Desert
tourists who might find the information useful The author (Stephens, 1996)
species arc already too few and too precious for us to let them disappear.
says: "Baharcya is an Oasis of simple pleasures and sheer beauty, but its days
Wherever there is "land reclamation", tourism development, even safari ~- as an untamed desert destination may be nearing their end" According to the
rallies, and such sweeping changes in the landscape, there arc hundreds of author there are now three hotels and a fourth soon to be completed, this one a
desert species and scores of habitats threatened by disappearance as a result of 4-star hotel and health resort. There arc also at least two local "tour operators"
such irresponsible and inattentive activities. Based on this, every part of the
ready to take tourists anywhere ar0W1d. One of the hot springs 1s practically
Saharo-Arabian desert where there is plant and animal life is, in a sense, a hot infested by bathing tourists, who complain of the "slippery" algae. These
spot that needs protection. Let us also emphaSize that date-palm-grove oases springs and their slippery algae arc ironically the spots where are found aquatic
are particular habitats where very ancient life styles and traditional ways of animals that can throw by their presence much light on the ancient connection
managing their agro«osystems arc still being practised, and that their of this oasis with the Nile.
associated biota are thus conserved (Barakat, 1995). until they arc noticed for
Another dramatic occurrence is the case of Chun1odr1/us ghabboun
"development projects" which begin by destroying the palm groves themselves,
discovered by the present author m the Dnhshur marshes n few kilometres south
and consequently their dependent biota and soil formations. We can easily
of the Pyramids of Giza m I 961, and rccofloctcd an 1966 (Jamieson, I 969) Its
identify hundreds of habitats in the Saharo-Arabian desert coveted by
congeneric species arc found only in West Afnca The area of Dahshur used to
"investors" in this way. As a matter of fact, every spot where a plant grows in
the desert is theoretically a bot spot. lt indicates where life can exist and where be a closed reserve for the Shooting Club of Egypt, for shootmg rrugratory
the prerequisites of life are available: water, good soil, plants, animals, as well waterfowl, but is now overwhelmed with roads, factones, campmg s1ccs, and
as man and hWIWl society itself. Investing in such spots would be easier, less· what not. Such occurrences are not only to be preserved 1ust for the sake of
preserving biodiversity, but also because the irreversible loss of these and
expensive, more attractive for staying, more durable, and with better profit.
TI1is is why where any vegetation is seen growing in the desert is expressly similar species without their presence being even detected will make us lose
where "investors" go first with the purpose of reshaping the landscape, whether forever invaluable information about them We will by th.ts bss lose evidence
it be for housing, for recreation, or for agriculture. about past climates, their change (a very contemporary issue), past hydrology,
and an insight into the probable amounts of ramfall dunng the Pluvial Penods,
However, simply for practical reasons, the hot spots concept should be by
and hence knowledge about underground water reserves (Ghabbour, 199 I,
priority applied in our region to include all desert areas where the threat of so 1996 a).
called "development projects" is imminent. One such area is Bahariya Oasis in
Egypt, 350 km south west of the Pyramids ofGii.a. This oasis harbours (or Such knowledge would undoubtedly be very helpful for the ra~~!!.l
development of these resources, so that maintaining b1odJver· 1
140 S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries S. Cihabbour: Thrcals to B1od1vcrs11y m Arab Countncs
141
not only satisfy a biological curiosity, but docs eventually boost development
their ancestors into these oases. have shown the probable amounts of nunfall m
.
efforts.
the period 140,000 to 70,000 years ago (Ghabbour. 19Q6 a & b)
Because most of the Sahara is barren, its plants and animals arc naturally
Bousquet (1992) has drawn a long11udinal transect between Algena and
restricted in their distribution to the rare wadis, oases, wetlands, etc. The
Nigeria, across the western part of North Africa, whereby 1t can be seen how
densily of species, or "areal species richness", when calculated for the whole
larger mammals are <frstnbulcd along the 1ransec1. and how the number of their •'
desert, will be of course very small (Cailleux, 1953), but if calculated as related species (absolute divers11y), 1s thinned out m the middle distances between the
to the area of the few and limited hot spots, it will certainly be quite astounding.
Mooilerranean and the Sahel. Areas where the few large mammals CXJSI m
As a matter of fact, where there are wild plants and animals in the desert is
between these two regions should be considered as important· potential hot
where Man and his domestic plants and animals can survive, settle, and live.
spots, that should be earmarked for conservation Biod1vcrs1ty hot spots should
If only because of this role as indicators for human development (both social
not be limited to the biota consiscmg only of the local res1dcn1 species. but must
and economic), hot spots and their biota arc invaluable for their innumerable
include migratory species as well Hot spots 111 the western part of the Ar.ib
economic uses that desert people arc quite aware of, a knowledge which we risk World that serve as restmg stations for m1gra10~ birds of lhc Western
losing very quickly. Consequently, the search for hot spots must be intimately Palaearc1ic, also need attention (Bousque1. 1992), as well as chose m Egypt and
linked to the search for indigenous knowledge about the wild plants and animals
other spots of resting stations for nugracor)' birds from northern and ccn1raJ
inhabiting them. One of the renowned indigenous herbalists in the St. Catherine Europe in the Middle East
area in southern Sinai, has said how sad and how frustrated he is that his two
sons both refuse to learn his profession from him, preferring other occupations, However, no matter how much 11 may be important to conserve hot spots
and that he is having great difficulty convincing other young men to become his related lo mammals and birds (as they are more conspicuous and a1tract1ve m
apprentices and to pick up his knowledge ("Dr" Alunad Mansour, personal the public eye), attention should also be direccc..'d lo hot spots related to
communication, 31May1996; &lim, 1996). invertebrates, which constitute. aboul 95% of lhc Animal Kingdom Desert
invertebrates deserve protection as agents of soil fcrt1laty, natural enemies of
Where are hot spots? What is threatening them? pests, pollinators of crops and of natural vegetation. among other ecosystem
functions. Their unique and unusual phys1olog1cal adaptations to hear and
When the last Glacial subsided (more or less coinciding with the Neolithic
drought, in spile of their small sizes (cf. Yanrncr and Ghabbour, 1983,
period of hullWl cultures), and the Saharo-Arabian desert became dry, such
Ghabbour et al., 1991, on the sand roach Heteroxom1a svriaco}, make them
plants and animals could survive and continue to reproduce only in spots potential sources of hormones and olhcr drugs to cure hum~ aj;h1ents
having either pennancnt water, such as in oases, or enough moisture, such as
mountain tops. These arc the refagia of the Arab World's biogeography, and Already some vertebrates, e g the fat sand rac f\ammomy.1 oht'.1'11.\', are
their biota should now be regarded as "relict" species, i.e., cut off from their being massively colk'Ctcd by some European drug comp:l.l11cs from NMh
main populations in their original homes. Some of them evolved in these Afncan deserts, without any conirols or regulations, for mcd1c1nal purposes
refagla into new species, peculiar to these spots, and found only there, i.e. There is no information available. unfonunatcly, abouc the highly probable hunt
endemic, and at the same time rare, species, that need to be first recogniud, for lhe sand roach, after pubhcat1on of our sc1cn11fic papers about its
and then conserved and studied. Their presence, and their discovery, throws adaptations to hea1 and drought, and the interest shown m 1t b} a ceruun
European drug company.
much light on the past history of the Arab region and its palClO()-«Ology, as was
the case with earthworms, whose endemic species in the oases within the
Aniskowicz ( 1995) suggests !hat the prott."Ct1011 of m\ crtcbr.ite.s shook.
Sahara desert of North Africa, and the possible routes and periods of entry of follow three steps
'
I
142 S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries
S. Ghabbour: Threats to B1odivers1ty in Arab Countries
143
1-identify non-vertebrate species at risk,
Although this Treaty needs much revision in the light of modem knowledge and
2-protect these species and their habitats, and
modem concepts, it could have served to improve environmental conservation
3-establish a central data base to assist in the two preceding tasks.
in the signatory countncs had 1t been given due attention, but the fact is that it
is unfortunately very little known worldwide and by some of the signatory
Efforts or Arab countries
countries themselves. It has of course been superseded by other later
Although conservation of wild plant animal species and of their habitats was international conventions, especially by the more famous Biodiversity
practised in Arab countries, and was regulated by common law, more than 15 Convention of Rio 1992, but it deserves to be revised and modernized as a tool
centuries ago, recent social transformations have two important effects on the for regional African co-opcrat1on, besides the Rio Biodiversity C'onvcntJon
present situation concerning biodiversity: Arab countries badly nccxl a s1m1lar regional tool under the aegis of the Arab
league or of ALECSO.
First, the old protection systems need to be modernized, and this in the direction
of willful improvement of protection mcasures andlecond, urban expansion, The Convention on International Trade m Endangered Species of Wild Flora
4
land reclamation for agriculture, and industrialization, together with the need and Fauna, known as CITES, has been adhered to by Algena, Egypt, Jordan,
for practising old style aristocratic types of recreation, such as falconry, let Morocco, the Sudan, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates, 1 e only seven
alone the indiscriminate use of firearms and mcchaniz.ed hunting, have together countries (J. Berney, CITES Secretariat, pnv corr, 8 June 1995).
a tremendous negative impact upon biodiversity.
The World Heritage Convention, which 1s concerned with both cultural and
The oil riches of a number of Arabian Gulf countries have induced some natural hentage sites, 1s less implemented m the Arab States than in other
members of their aristocracy into organizing huge mechaniz.ed hunting regions of the world. Although Algena, Bahram, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon.
expeditions roaming the deserts of their own countries first, and then of Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syna,
neighbouring countries offering them hospitality, by way of traditional Tunisia, and Yemen (15 countnes), have signed the Convention at a very early
fraternity, and almost decimating their falcons, their gazelles, and their stage, only four natural heritage sites from these countries figure on the World
bustards. Some Arab countries have suffered so much from these expedjtions Heritage List. Eight biosphere reserves are registered and a number of RanlSa!
that a number of their desert mammals and birds can be considered practically sites arc listed in six contracting State Parties Some of the sites such as lch.keul
extinct. And of course, the rare species disappear first. Recent reports indicate in Tunisia, Tass1h-n-Hoggar m Algeria. or Dane d'Argu1n. arc hsk'd under all
that the various species of desert truffles are facing the danger of extinction, or three programmes, or at least an two of them (Rossler. It.>%)
extreme rarity, because of over-exploitation.These mechaniz:ed hunting
Concerning the main B1od1vcrs1ty Convention. all Arab councncs have
expeditions are resented by national conservationists and a number of
signed ll, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, Somalia. and Syna (Batanouny,
Journalists of the concerned countries at both ends, who spare no effort to 1996).
denounce them and their practices, but with little or no success. Some efforts
for breeding endangered species in captivity, such as the bustards, are being Let us now see what Agenda 21 says about b1od1vcrs1ty h 1s a document
carried out in a number of Gulf States. The case of the Arabian oryx is at least seldom given attention, m spite of its value.
a bright success story that needs to be repeated elsewhere.
The proposals or A&enda 2 I
In 1968, African countries, including Arab countnes situated in Africa,
signed in Algiers the African Treaty for Conservation of Nature and Natural Agenda 21, approved m the Rio Summit. but rarely referred to as a btndmg
Resources during a Summit Meeting of the Organization of African Unity. document, gives governments and scientists valuable guidelines for actions tit:~
would support the application of the B1od1vers11y Convcnt10T> • - ·
'·
S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity an Arab Cou~rics 14S
144
9-the rehabilitation of damaged ecosystems and endangered spoc1es
efficiency. The Agenda pointed out in Chapter 15 that factors leading to the
should be promoted,
loss of biodiversity are a serious threat to human development, and attributed
I0 -sustainable practices m areas adjacent to protected areas should be
the global loss of biodiversity to: encouraged, and
1-habitat destruction., 11-technical and scientific co-operation should be promoted, with
2-over-harvesting, special attention given to technology transfer, professional ttalfWlg
3-pollution, and programmes, and developing research and nwuagcment fact.~
4-the inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals. as herbaria, museums, gene banks, and laboratoncs.
Proposals in Agenda 21 for conserving biodiversity called on governments to: Of course, very few of these proposals have boen tmplemented for vanous
1-press for the early entry into force of the Biodiversity Convention, reasons, the most obvious of whii;h is the inability ~f governments, particularly
in developing countries, to implement all of these vroposals at the same llme
2· foster traditional methods and knowledge of indigenous people and
National biodiverstty strategies should not only look into conservation, but also
their communities,
into identifying threats and laymg down the foundations of implementing these
3-share the benefits of biological resources, including biotechnology, in
proposals over a reasonable pcnod of time, say 20 years from now
particular with developing countries, and
4-develop national strategies for the conservation of biodiversity, the Arab countries, having signed the B1odivers1ty Convention in their majority,
sustainable use of biological resources and the safe transfer of like many other regional country groups all over the world, have taken up steps
biotechnology, particularly to developing countries. to apply the Convention and to co-ordinate their actions accordmgly.
The Agenda added that national surveys should be undertaken in order to: Collectively, there arc several mtemallonal umbrellas, notably IUCN,
UNESCO-MAS, and WHC, under which Arab countncs arc co-operatmg for
1-compile an inventory of biological resources,
2-improve scientific and economic understanding of the importance and environmental issues in general and for b1od1vers11y conservation m particular
At the regional level, the Arab League has established, m c<r0pcrat1on with
functions of biodiversity, and
UNEP and UNDP, the "Jomt Comm1ttoe on Environment and Development m
3-suggest priorities for action.
the Arab Region", which deals with b1od1vm1!) issue~ among other aspects
Moreover, the Agenda proposed that: related to sustainable developm1..'1lt The Arab League Educat1onal, Cultural,
4-the economic and social implications of protecting biodiversity should and Scientific Organization (ALECSO), wluch 1s to the Arab League what
also be assessed, UNESCO is to the United Nations, has a programme dealing with b1odivemty
5-a global network should regularly monitor, update, and report this m Arab count.ries. At the sub-regional level, the Gulf Co-opcrauon Council
(GCC), also has put biodiversity on 1ts agenda. In the penod 1993-1995, A.tab
information,
6-environmental impact assessments should be made for development countries participated m 16 regional meetings for dtscumng b1odtvers1cy
projects likely to affect biological diversity, conservation (Ghabbour, 1995; Batanouny, 1996) These were ·~.
7-economic incentives should be used to encourage the conservation of
1-The West Asia/North Afnca Regional Members Group Meeting,
biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources,
Amman, Jordan, June 1993,
8-conservation of biodiversity should occur through Jn s1tu conservation
of ecosystems and natural habitats and ex situ measures, preferably in 2-Workshop on B1olog1cal D1vcrs1ty tn North Afnca, Tums, T U..'l.191!:.·
Ngv 199J,
the country where the species are found,
S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity in Arab Countries S. Ghabbour: Threats to Biodiversity an Arab Countries
146 147
3-The West Asia/North Africa Regional Members Meeting, Buenos The IUCN-sponsored project concerns the five countries of North Africa:
Aires, Argentina, Jan. 1994, Morocco, Algeria, Tun1s1a, Libya, and Egypt. It has four components:
4-Workshop on Biological Diversity and Education in North Africa, Biodiversity Conservation (Hot Spots), Medictnal Plants, B1odivcrs1ty
Rabat, Morocco, May 1994, Education., and Conservation of the Choetah. The project 1s organu.od on the
5-Genetic Resources, an Egypt/United States Workshop, Cairo, Egypt, basis of a regional co-ordmator and five national co-ordinators for ea.eh sub
June 1994, projcct. A regional meeting for co-ordmators of the Hot Spots sub-project was
6-Workshop on Biological Diversity in Gulf Co-operation Council held in Tripoli, Libya, in July 1996 (Ghabbour, 1996 c).and another one in
Countries, Kuwait, Sept. 1994, Cairo in February 1997.
7-Workshop on Arid Lands Biodiversity in North Africa, Cairo, Egypt,
UNESCO is also contemplating, with the collaboration of National Arab
Nov. 1994,
MAB Conunittces, estabhstung an Arab MAB network, with one of its main
8-Second Regional Meeting of National Arab MAB Committees, Cairo,
activities suggested as the promotion of biodiversity research and education in
Egypt, Dec. 1994,
biosphere reserves. Two meetings of Arab Nat1onaJ MAB Committees were
9-Meeting of NGOs in Mediterranean Countries for Coastal and Marine
held for this purpose, one in Damascus, Syna. m December 1996, and the other
Biodiversity in the Mediterranean, Alghero (Sardinia), Italy, Jan.
in Amman, Jordan, in June 1997.
1995, I
10-Workshop on Rural Women, Biodiversity, and Development, Furthermore, the lntemationaJ Convenllon concerning the conservallon of
Marrakech, Morocco, Apr. 1995, the world's cultural and natural hcntage, which was convened under the
11-Third Training Course for Management and Conservation of Natural patrof1a8e of UNESCO, and which established the World Hentage Centre to
Heritage in the Arab World, Cairo and Sinai, Egypt, May/June promote its implemcntallon, under the aegis of UNESCO, 1s trying to promote
1995, the establishment of natural heritage sites tn Arab countries. One of the cnteria
12-Thirteenth Session of the UNESCO-MAB International Co is that the site should be represcntallve of a uruque and threatened community
ordinating Council, Paris, France, June 1995, of plants and animals. There arc at present only four declared natural heritage
13-Riyadh Conservation Forum, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, sites in Arab countnes, compared to 41 cultural sites (Ghabbour, 1997). The
Oct. 1995, World Heritage Centre has also organized, between 1989 and 1997. four
14-Meeting of Arab Experts on Biodiversity, the Arab League, Cairo, training courses on the conservation and management of natural heritage sites
Egypt, Oct. 1995, in Arab countries.
15-Work.shop on Biodiversity, lzmir, Turkey, Oct.-Nov. 1995, and
'The ALECSO project, entitled MPromot1on of Arab Co-<>perat1on m
16-Workshop on Biological Diversity, its Causes and Sustainable Use in
Biological Diversity", 1s of a wider scope II aims al defining the present
the Arab World, Bahrain. Dec. 1995.
situation of biodiversity in Arab countnes with a view of helping them to
This is certainly an impressive list of efforts exerted by Arab countries for establish national, sub-regional. and regionaJ stratt:g1es for the conservation and
the conservation of their biodiversity. In addition, there are two on-going sustainable use of biodiversity, m accordance with the commitments of the
projects for the stµdy of the situation of biodiversity and for its conservation in Biodiversity Convention and the guidelines of Agenda 2 I
Arab countries; one is internationally sponsored but of a sub-regional
The ALECSO proJoct obJecttvcs (ALEC'SO 1994) are
character, and the other is regionally oriented and regionally sponsored. The
first is an IUCN-sponsored project, supported by the Swiss Govenunent, and 1-the i.nitiatioo of a survey of the status of b1od1vers1ty in Arab
the second is sponsored by ALECSO (headquarters in Tunis). countries, and
