Table Of ContentThin Film Growth
Techniques for
Low-Dimensional Structures
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Series B: Physics
Thin Film Growth
Techniques for
Low-Dimensional Structures
Edited by
R. F. C. Farrow
and
s.
S. P. Parki n
IBM Almaden Research Center
San Jose, California
P. J. Dobson
and
J. H. Neave
Philips Research Laboratories
Surrey, United Kingdom
and
A. S. Arrott
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, Canada
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop on
Thin Film Growth Techniques for Low-Dimensional Structures,
held September 15-19,1986,
at the University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
This book contains the proceedings of a NATO Advanced Reserach Workshop
held within the program of activities of the NATO Special Program on Con-
densed Systems of Low Dimensionality, running from 1983 to 1988 as part of
the activities of the NATO Science Committee.
Other books previously published as a result of the activities of the Special
Program are:
Volume 148 INTERCALATION IN LAYERED MATERIALS
edited by M. S. Dresselhaus
Volume 152 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NARROW-GAP LOW-DIMENSIONAL
STRUCTURES
edited by C. M. Sotomayor Torres, J. C. Portal, J. C. Maan, and
R. A. Stradling
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Thin Film Growth Techniques for
Low-Dimensional Structures (1986: Brighton, East Sussex)
Thin film growth techniques for low-dimensional structures I edited by
R. F. C. Farrow ... [et al.].
p. cm.-(NATO advanced science institutes series. Series B, Physics; v.
163)
"Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Thin Film
Growth Techniques for Low-Dimensional Structures, held Sept. 15-19, 1986,
... in Brighton, United Kingdom."
"Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division."
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-4684-9147-0 ISBN 978-1-4684-9145-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4684-9145-6
1. Semiconductors-Surfaces-Congresses. 2. Crystals-Growth-Con-
gresses. 4. Layer structure (Solids)-Congresses. I. Farrow, R. F. C. II. Title. III.
Series.
QC611.6.S9N38 1986
537.6'22-dc19 87-22766
CIP
© 1 987 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1987
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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PREFACE
This work represents the account of a NATO Advanced Research
Workshop on "Thin Film Growth Techniques for Low Dimensional
Structures", held at the University of Sussex, Brighton, England from
15-19 Sept. 1986. The objective of the workshop was to review the
problems of the growth and characterisation of thin semiconductor and
metal layers. Recent advances in deposition techniques have made it
possible to design new material which is based on ultra-thin layers and
this is now posing challenges for scientists, technologists and
engineers in the assessment and utilisation of such new material.
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) has become well established as a
method for growing thin single crystal layers of semiconductors. Until
recently, MBE was confined to the growth of III-V compounds and alloys,
but now it is being used for group IV semiconductors and II-VI
compounds. Examples of such work are given in this volume. MBE has one
major advantage over other crystal growth techniques in that the
structure of the growing layer can be continuously monitored using
reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED). This technique has
offered a rare bonus in that the time dependent intensity variations of
RHEED can be used to determine growth rates and alloy composition rather
precisely. Indeed, a great deal of new information about the kinetics
of crystal growth from the vapour phase is beginning to emerge. This
subject is not without some controversy and the reader may identify
differing views of the interpretation of RHEED intensity variations in
this book. Metal-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) is another
technique well suited to growing semiconductors of atomic layer
thickness and many believe it will be more applicable to the large scale
production of device structures. As will be evident here, the results
are very impressive. A similar remark applies to what can be achieved
using liquid phase epitaxy, which although not originally intended for
the growth of layers of a few atoms thickness, can now achieve this for
some materials systems.
Future trends are identified in the extension of these growth
techniques to materials systems outside of the III~V compounds and to
layers which are amorphous. In the latter case this also removes or
relaxes the constraint of seeking combinations of materials which
v
lattice match and surely must open up many new areas and scope for
combining layers of metals, dielectrics and semiconductors. Metallic
multilayer systems also emerge as a very promising area of research.
There are many examples of the control that can be now exercised on the
design of new magnetic materials. Of course this development also
highlights the need to explore new ways of characterising the magnetic
properties at the interfacial and atomic level.
The organizers of the workshop were aware of the need to question
how appropriate are the contemporary characterisation techniques.
Optical measurements are clearly very useful and important for the
assessment of semiconductor material, and for some magnetic
measurements. Structural investigations must rely on careful x-ray
diffraction and transmission electron microscopy and diffraction.
Several examples of the utility of these techniques applied to low
dimensional structures are given in this book. It was a feeling of
everyone at this research workshop that we are only just starting to
realise the enormous possibilities of growing material with control of
thickness at the atomic level. During the next few years, growth and
assessment techniques will be clearly pushed to new limits.
P.J. Dobson
Philips Research Labs
Redhill
England
vi
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . .. 1
GROWTH OF LOW-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES
IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Effect of Barrier Configurations and Interface Quality
on structural and Optical Properties of MBE-Grown
AlxGal_xAs/GaAs, AlxGal_xSb/GaSb and Alxlnl-xAs/Gaxlnl_xAs
Superlattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
K. Ploog, W. Stolz, and L. Tapfer
Dymanic RHEED Techniques and Interface Quality in
MBE-Grown GaAs/(Al,Ga)As structures 19
B.A. Joyce, J.H. Neave, J. Zhang, P.J. Dobson,
P. Dawson, K.J. Moore, and C.T. Foxon
Molecular Beam Epitaxial Growth Kinetics, Mechanism(s) and
Interface Formation: Computer Simulations
and Experiments 37
A. Madhukar
Diffraction Studies of Epitaxy: Elastic, Inelastic and
Dynamic Contributions to RHEED . . . . . . . 69
P.I. Cohen, P.R. Pukite, and S. Batra
Some Aspects of RHEED Theory 95
P.A. Maksym
Superlattices and Superstructures Grown by MOCVD . . . . . . . . .. 115
N. Watanable, Y. Mori, and H. Kawai
Growth of Indium Phosphide/Indium Gallium Arsenide
Structures by MOCVD Using an Atmosphere Pressure
Reactor .................... . 137
S.J. Bass, S.J. Barnett, G.T. Brown, N.G. Chew,·A.G. Cullis
M.S. Skolnick, and L.L. Taylor
MOCVD Growth of Narrow Gap Low Dimensional Structures 151
M. Razeghi
The Preparation of Modulated Semiconductor Structures
by Liquid Phase Epitaxy . . • . . . . . . . . . 171
E. Bauser
VII
Growth and Strurrure of Compositionally Modulated
Amorphous Semiconductor Superlattices and
Heterojunctions • . . • . • • . • • • . . • 195
L. Yang and B. Abeles
Atomic Layer Epitaxy of Compound Semiconductors 221
M. Pessa
Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction Intensity
Oscillations - An Effective Tool of Si and GexSi1_x
Molecular Beam Epitaxy. • • . . . . . . • . • . .•. .• 225
T. Sakamoto, K.Sakamoto, S. Nagao, G. Hashiguchi,
K. Kuniyoshi, and Y. Bando
RHEED Intensity Oscillations and the Epitaxial Growth
of Quasi-2D Magnetic Semiconductors • . . . • 247
L.A. Kolodziejski, R.I. Gunshor, A.V. Nurmikko,
and N. Otsuka
GROWTH OF LOW-DIMENSIONAL METALLIC STRUCTURES
Magnetic Interface Preparation and Analysis .•. 261
U. Gradmann and M. Przybylski
Increased Magnetic Moments in Transition Elements
Through Epitaxy . • • • • .. ...•• 287
A.S.Arrott, B. Heinrich, C. Liu, and S.T. Purcell
Growth and Characterization of Magnetic Transition
Metal Over layers On GaAs Substrates . . • . • . . • • • . . . . 311
G.A. Prinz
Metal Semiconductor Interfaces: The Role of Structure
and Chemistry • . . . . . 319
R. Ludeke
Synthesis of Rare Earth Films and
Superlattices .•....•...•....••........ 337
J. Kwo
Ferromagnetic Metallic Multilayers: From Elementary
Sandwiches to Superlattices . 361
J.P. Renard
The Characterization of Modulated Metallic Structures
by X-Ray Diffraction. . . . . • . . . • . . . . 379
R. Clarke
Spin-Polarized Neutron Reflection from Metastable
Magnetic Films . . • . . . . . . • . 405
J.A.C. Bland and R.F. Willis
CHARACTERIZATION OF LOW-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURES
Probing Semiconductor MQW Structures by X-Ray Diffraction 417
P. F. Fewster
Characterization of Superlattices by X-Ray Diffraction . . . . . .. 441
W. Bartels
viii
High Resolution Electron Microscopy and Convergent Beam
Electron Diffraction of Semiconductor Quantum
Well Structures 459
C.J. Humphreys
The TEM Characterization of Low-Dimensional
Structures in Epitaxial Semiconductor Thin Films . . . . .. 471
J.P. Gowers
Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect and Lightscattering from
Spinwaves: Probes of Layered Magnetic Structures 487
P. Grunberg
Magnetism, at Surfaces and Spin Polarized Electron
Spectroscopy . . . . • . . . . . . . 507
H.C. Siegmann
Epitaxial Growths and Surface Science Techniques
Applied to the Case of Ni Overlayers on
Single Crystal Fe (001) . . . . . . • . . 521
B. Heinrich, A.S. Arrott, J.F. Cochran, S.T. Purcell,
K.B. Urquart, N Alberding, and C. Liu
INDEX ......•....•........ 549
INTRODUCTION
This volume contains the contributions to a NATO Advanced Research Workshop on
Thin Film Growth Techniques for Low Dimensional Structures which was held at the
University of Sussex between 15-19 September 1986.
In recent years there has been intense activity in the semiconductor field for the
manufacture of structures in which at least one dimension is restricted. This has resulted
in the study and use of quantum wells and superlattices for lasers, photodetectors, optical
modulators and other optoelectronic devices. There is now a worldwide activity in the
development of many new electronic and optical devices which depend on the growth of
accurately controlled semiconductor layers of only a few atomic layers thickness. The
demands being placed on growth technology to realize such structures with the required
high degree of crystalline perfection are severe, and scientists and technologists are rising
to these challenges. There is an interesting interplay between the science and technology
here. As new structures are designed to investigate the nature of material in
low-dimensional form, so problems are created for the technology to make the structure.
In solving the problems, new insight is gained into the basics physics and chemistry of the
growth processes. Hopefully, and indeed it is already evident, we can use some of this
insight to improve the technology for making structures which might eventually reach the
market-place. This workshop concentrated specifically on aspects of growth, but it
should be remembered that there are many other problems in achieving small dimensions
in a device structure.
In some respects such a workshop is timely since the field is just beginning to expand and
encompass many more materials. For the past decade most work on two-dimensional
structures, i.e, quantum wells and superlattices, has concentrated on GaAs, (AlGa)As and
other ill-V alloy systems. For example layers of GaAs of thickness from about 13A to
250A sandwiched between (AlGa)As alloy layers have been extensively investigated with
regard to optical and electrical properties and have been made into quantum well lasers.
Now, group IV and II-VI semiconductor superlattices are being grown and the field is
rapidly expanding to include metal and dielectric layers. Much of the motivation in
studying metal multilayers is the prospect that new magnetic material can be designed, in
much the same way that semiconductor technologists are seeking to design new
semiconductors from thin layers of dissimilar material. We are only at the threshold of
a new era of "designed material". However actually achieving the design parameters
presents many challenges.
The different growth techniques being used to grow low dimensional structures were well
represented at the workshop. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) perhaps received rather
more emphasis because it is more adaptable for different materials and more easily used
in combination with modem surface analytical techniques, particularly reflection high
energy electron diffraction (RHEED). This technique is capable of yielding rather precise
measurements of the growth rate via oscillations of the diffracted intensity with time
which occur during growth. At this workshop there were examples of these so-called
