Thickening and Gelling Agents for Food

334 Pages·1997·30.24 MB·English

by  R. Armisen (auth.)

Thickening and Gelling Agents
for Food
To Tim
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Thickening and Gelling
Agents for Food
Second edition
Edited by
ALANIMESON
Technical Sales
FMC Corporation (UK) Ltd
Food lngredients Division
Leicester
m
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
First edition 1992
Reprinted 1994, 1996
Second edition 1997
© 1992, 1997 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1997
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1997
Typeset in 10/12pt Times New Roman by Best-set Typesetter Ltd,
Hong Kong
ISBN 978-1-4613-5921-0 ISBN 978-1-4615-2197-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2197-6
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or
criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents
Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, siored, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance
with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in
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Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries conceming
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at
the London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to
the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any
legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-86550
8 Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI/
NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper)
Contents
List of contributors xi
Preface xiii
Preface to the first edition xv
1 Agar 1
R. ARMISEN
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Raw materials 2
1.3 Production 5
1.4 Agars obtained from various agarophytes 7
1.5 Chemical composition 8
1.5.1 Agarose 8
1.5.2 Agaropectin 10
1.6 Agar gelation 10
1.7 Synergies and incompatibilities of agar 14
1.8 Applications 15
1.8.1 Food applications 15
1.8.2 Regulations for agar in foods 17
1.8.3 Other applications of agar 18
References 20
2 Alginates 22
E.ONS0YEN
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Manufacture 22
2.2.1 Raw materials 22
2.2.2 Commercial alginates 23
2.3 Chemical composition 24
2.3.1 General 24
2.3.2 Configuration 24
2.3.3 Alginate biosynthesis 25
2.3.4 Block structure analysis 26
2.4 Functional properties 27
2.4.1 Viscosity 27
2.4.2 Gelation 29
2.4.3 Gel strength 32
2.5 Gel formation techniques 32
2.5.1 General 32
2.5.2 Diffusion setting, neutral pH 32
2.5.3 Diffusion setting, acid pH 33
2.5.4 Internal setting, neutral and acid pH 33
2.5.5 Combined setting 33
2.5.6 Setting by cooling 33
2.5.7 Algina te/pectin gels 34
vi CONTENTS
2.6 Alginate processes for food production 34
2.6.1 General 34
2.6.2 Appropriate food raw materials 36
2.6.3 Commercial alginate gel restructured products 36
2.6.4 Examples of production formats 38
2.6.5 Alginate products for the bakery industry 38
2.7 Thickening and stabilising 40
2.7.1 Thickening 40
2.7.2 Stabilising 41
2.7.3 Thickening/stabilising with propylene glycol alginate 41
2.8 Film formation 42
2.9 Summary 42
References 44
3 Carrageenan 45
W.R. THOMAS
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Raw materials 45
3.3 Manufacturing 47
3.4 Regulation 48
3.5 Functional properties 49
3.6 Synergism with food ingredients 54
3.7 Food applications 56
References 59
4 Cellulose derivatives 60
D. ZECHER and T. GERRISH
4.1 Introduction 60
4.2 Manufacture 60
4.3 MC and MHPC: chemistry and properties 62
4.4 HPC: chemistry and properties 67
4.5 CMC: chemistry and properties 70
4.6 Major commercial applications in food products 75
4.6.1 Introduction 75
4.6.2 Frozen desserts 75
4.6.3 Fruit juice-based drinks and products 78
4.6.4 Bakery products 79
4.6.5 Dairy products 80
4.6.6 Structured, extruded and coated products 81
4.6.7 Miscellaneous food applications 82
4.6.8 Future developments 83
References 83
5 Exudate gums 86
M.V. WAREING
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Gum arabic 86
5.2.1 Introduction 86
5.2.2 Manufacture 88
5.2.3 Chemical composition 90
5.2.4 Functional properties 91
5.2.5 Applications 96
5.2.6 Future developments 99
CONTENTS Vll
5.3 Gum tragacanth 100
5.3.1 Introduction 100
5.3.2 Manufacture 101
5.3.3 Chemical composition 102
5.3.4 Functional properties 103
5.3.5 Applications 105
5.3.6 Future developments 109
5.4 Gum karaya 109
5.4.1 Introduction 109
5.4.2 Manufacture 110
5.4.3 Chemical composition 111
5.4.4 Functional properties 112
5.4.5 Applications 114
5.4.6 Future developments 116
References 116
6 Gellan gum 119
W. GIBSON and G.R. SANDERSON
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Manufacture 119
6.3 Chemical composition 119
6.4 Functional properties 121
6.4.1 Hydration 121
6.4.2 Solution properties 122
6.4.3 Gel formation 124
6.4.4 Gel properties 126
6.4.5 Gum combinations 134
6.5 Regulatory status 136
6.6 Applications 137
6.7 Future developments 140
References 142
7 Gelatin 144
1. POPPE
7.1 Introduction 144
7.2 Gelatin: definition 144
7.3 Collagen 145
7.4 Collagen-gelatin transformation 146
7.5 Gelatin manufacture 146
7.5.1 Pretreatment 147
7.5.2 Extraction and post-extraction processing 147
7.5.3 Commercial gelatin 149
7.6 Chemical structure 150
7.6.1 Composition 150
7.6.2 Isoelectric point 151
7.6.3 Molecular weight and molecular weight distribution 151
7.7 Functional properties 152
7.7.1 Gelation mechanism 152
7.7.2 Gel strength 152
7.7.3 Melting point 154
7.7.4 Setting point 154
7.7.5 Viscosity 155
7.7.6 Turbidity 155
7.7.7 Colour 156
7.7.8 Colloid protection 156
viii CONTENTS
7.8 Uses of gelatin in the food industry 156
7.8.1 Confectionery 158
7.8.2 Dairy products 161
7.8.3 Meat industry 164
7.8.4 Hydrolysed gelatin applications 166
7.8.5 Miscellaneous applications 166
References 167
8 Konjac gum 169
W.R. THOMAS
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Raw materials 169
8.3 Manufacturing 170
8.4 Regulation 172
8.5 Chemical structure 172
8.6 Functional properties 174
8.6.1 Thickening agent 174
8.6.2 Gelling agent: thermally reversible gels 175
8.6.3 Thermally stable gels 176
8.7 Dietary fibre 176
8.8 Food applications 177
Additional reading 178
9 Microcrystalline cellulose 180
A.P. IMESON and W. HUMPHREYS
9.1 Introduction 180
9.2 Raw materials 180
9.3 Manufacturing process 181
9.4 Chemical composition 184
9.5 Physical and functional properties 186
9.6 Interactions with other food ingredients 190
9.7 Applications in foods 190
9.7.1 Dressings, sauces and spreads 192
9.7.2 Processed cheese 193
9.7.3 Frozen desserts and ice cream 194
9.7.4 Dairy products 195
9.7.5 Meat products 196
9.7.6 Powdered cellulose 196
9.7.7 Bakery fillings, toppings and coatings 196
9.8 Legislation and nutrition 197
9.9 Future developments 197
References 197
10 Modified starches 199
A. RAPAILLE and J. VANHEMELRIJCK
10.1 Introduction 199
10.1.1 Sources 199
10.1.2 Availability 199
10.1.3 Quantities 199
10.2 Chemical composition 200
10.2.1 Structure of starch 200
CONTENTS IX
10.2.2 Principal properties of native starches 201
10.3 Starch manufacturing process 201
10.3.1 Basic separation processes 201
10.3.2 Starch modification types and techniques 203
10.4 Physical and sensory properties of native and modified starches 206
10.4.1 Pasting characteristics 206
10.4.2 Viscosity stability to heat, acid and shear 207
10.4.3 Sensory and textural properties 210
10.5 Preparation and use 213
10.5.1 Optimal preparation conditions for starch pastes 213
10.5.2 Influence of other food components 214
10.6 Major commercial applications 214
10.6.1 Confectionery 215
10.6.2 Canned and bottled foods 217
10.6.3 Frozen foods 218
10.6.4 Dairy desserts 218
10.6.5 Food powders 225
10.6.6 Bakery products 226
10.6.7 Miscellaneous 228
Further reading 229
11 Pectins 230
C.D. MAY
11.1 Occurrence and sources of pectin 230
11.2 Chemical nature of pectin 232
11.3 Pectin manufacture 233
11.4 Modification of pectin 234
11.5 Properties of pectin 235
11.5.1 Solubility and viscosity 235
11.5.2 Degradation 236
11.6 Gelation: high methoxyl pectins 236
11.7 Gelation: low methoxyl pectins 238
11.8 Interaction with other polymers 240
11.9 Physiological properties: dietary fibre 240
11.10 Legal status 241
11.11 lams and jellies: traditional high-sugar products 241
11.12 lams and jellies: reduced sugar 244
11.13 Fruit products for bakery applications 246
11.13.1 Bake-stable products 247
11.13.2 Glazes 248
11.14 Fruit preparations 250
11.15 Desserts 251
11.15.1 Water-based desserts 251
11.15.2 Dairy desserts 252
11.16 Confectionery 254
11.17 Savoury products 258
11.18 Low-calorie drinks 259
11.19 Dairy drinks 259
11.19.1 Yoghurt drinks 259
11.19.2 Whey drinks 259
11.19.3 Milk/juice blends 259
11.20 Other food uses and potential uses 260
References 260
12 Seed gums 262
J.E. FOX
x CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction 262
12.2 Galactomannans 262
12.2.1 Locust bean gum 263
12.2.2 Guar gum 266
12.2.3 Tara gum 267
12.3 Chemical structure 269
12.4 Properties 270
12.4.1 Solubility 270
12.4.2 Viscosity 272
12.4.3 Interaction with other hydrocolloids 275
12.4.4 Stability 275
12.4.5 Interaction with protein 276
12.5 Applications of galactomannans 276
12.5.1 Milk-based products 277
12.5.2 Desserts 279
12.5.3 Mayonnaises 279
12.5.4 Dressings and ketchups 280
12.5.5 Sterilised soups and sauces 280
12.5.6 Deep-frozen foods 281
12.5.7 Other uses 281
12.6 Conclusion 281
References 282
13 Xanthan gum 284
B. URLACHER and O. NOBLE
13.1 Introduction 284
13.2 Process 284
13.3 Molecular structure 286
13.4 Xanthan gum in solution 289
13.4.1 Rheological properties 289
13.4.2 Stability and compatibility 291
13.5 Solution preparation and use 296
13.6 Gum associations 300
13.6.1 Xanthan-galactomannan interactions 300
13.6.2 Xanthan-glucomannan (konjac flour-gum interactions) 306
13.6.3 Xanthan-starch interactions 307
13.7 Applications 307
13.7.1 Dressings 307
13.7.2 Sauces, gravies, relishes and canned soups 309
13.7.3 Dairy products 309
13.7.4 Whipped creams and mousses 309
13.7.5 Instant mixes: drinks, soups and desserts 309
13.7.6 Bakery products 310
13.7.7 Syrups, toppings and fillings 310
13.7.8 Pet foods 310
13.7.9 Fruit preparations 311
References 311
Index 312