They want us to be Afraid

13 Pages·2007·0.97 MB·English

“They want us to be Afraid”
Anne Aly
Mark Balnaves
VOLUME 6, NUMBER 6
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“They want us to be Afraid”
Developing a Metric for the Fear of Terrorism
Anne Aly, Edith Cowan University, Australia
Mark Balnaves, Edith Cowan University, Australia
Abstract:Thereisarangeofscalestomeasuredifferentpsychologicalandbehaviouralresponsestofearintheresearch
literature.However,thereisnosummativemeasureforcommunityfear.Inthispapertheauthorsreportonamajornational
survey of Australian Muslims and the broader community that creates a metric, or barometer, to measure fear among
communitiesinAustraliaafter9/11.Thepaperwillalsoreportonmajorqualitativeresearchinvestigatingcommunityre-
sponsestothemediaandpoliticaldiscoursesonterrorismandfear.Thesequantitativeandqualitativedataprovideapicture
Australian Muslim communities under siege. The findings reported in the paper are a part of an Australian Research
Council(ARC)projectontheresponsesofMuslimcommunitiestomediareportingonterror.
Keywords:MeasuresofFear,AustralianMoslemandnon-MoslemResponsestoMediaReportingofTerror,AgendaSetting
ofthebroaderAustraliancommunity.Thefindings
I am scared. Scared in a sense that if it did of this study were used to inform the development
happen,whatthehellisgoingtohappentous? ofaninnovativequantitativemetricoffeardesigned
SheikhFaizalGaffoorquotedintheWestAus- to measure how Australians are responding to the
tralianNewspaper,11November2005. fearofterrorism.Researchintotheeffectsoffearon
social behaviour has traditionally focused on two
F
OLLOWING THE TERRORIST attacks
patterns of behavioral responses to fear: restrictive
ontheWorldTradeCentreandthePentagon
behaviourswhichassumethatpeopleconstraintheir
in2001,pollsintheUnitedStatesrevealeda
behaviourtoavoidcircumstancesconsideredunsafe,
heightenedleveloffearandanxietyaboutthe
andassertivebehaviourswhichinvolvespeoplead-
likelihoodoffurtherterroristattacks.Accordingto
optingprotectivebehavioursincircumstancescon-
one poll, 52 percent of Americans said they could
sidered to be unsafe (Liska, 1988). An analysis of
imaginethemselvesoralovedoneasavictimofa
empirical evidence collected was conducted in the
terrorist attack (Kakutani, 2001). Despite the fact
firststageoftheprojecttodevelopaconstructtypo-
that risk assessment studies in Australia underline
logy of fear (Becker, 1940). The results pointed to
thattheactualriskofaterroristattackismarginalin
thefearofterrorismasaffectingbothrestrictiveand
comparison to many other mortality risks such as
protective behaviours. As the first of its kind, the
smokingandcaraccidents(Mueller,2004;Viscusi,
metricoffearmeasurestheextenttowhichAustrali-
2003), Australian polls also indicated heightened
ans are constraining their behaviours and adopting
levelsoffearandanxietyaboutapossibleterrorist
protectivebehavioursinresponsetothefearofter-
attackinAustralia.Accordingtoapollpublishedin
rorism.
theSydneyMorningHeraldinApril2004,68percent
ofAustraliansbelievedthatAustraliawasatthreat The Fear of Terrorism
of an imminent terrorist attack (Michaelsen, 2005;
Viscusi,2003). Thereisnointernationallyaccepted,unitarydefini-
A national project at Edith Cowan University tionofterrorism.Abriefreviewoftheliteratureon
fundedbyanAustralianResearchCouncilDiscovery terrorismrevealsover100definitions.InAustralia,
Grant(SafeguardingAustralia)examinesthenature terrorismisdefinedbytheAustralianDefenceForce
ofthefearofterrorismoperatingwithintheAustrali- asthe“useorthreateneduseofviolenceforpolitical
an community since the September 11 terrorist at- endsorforthepurposeofputtingthepublicorany
tacks.Theprojectincorporatesaqualitativeresearch sectionofthepublicinfear”(Martyn,2002).Among
study on audience constructions of the media and thevariousdefinitionsofterrorismthatexististhe
popular discourse on terrorism. This stage of the universalnotionthatterrorismusesviolence,targets
project compares the impact of the terrorism dis- non-combatants,isintendedtointimidateandcreates
courseasexperiencedbyMuslimAustralianstothat
INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFTHEDIVERSITY,VOLUME6,NUMBER6,2007
http://www.Diversity-Journal.com,ISSN1447-9532
©CommonGround,AnneAly,MarkBalnaves,AllRightsReserved,Permissions:[email protected]
114 INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFTHEDIVERSITY,VOLUME6
a state of terror. Importantly, all definitions agree ized worlds. In his speech delivered at the United
thatfearistheultimateaimofterrorism. Nations Security Council Ministerial Session on
Fearisperhapsthemostintenseof humanemo- TerrorismonJanuary20,2003,ColinPowellinvoked
tions and can manifest itself in a variety of ways. therhetoricofaclashofcivilisationsandurged“We
Fearcanbearationalresponsetothepresenceofa must rid the civilized world of this cancer…. We
realdangeroranirrationalresponsetoanimaginary mustrisetothechallengewithactionsthatwillrid
danger;itcanparalyseoritcanmotivate;itcanserve the globe of terrorism and create a world in which
apoliticalpurposeoritcanserveadeeppsycholo- allGod’schildrencanlivewithoutfear”.USPresid-
gicalneed,itcanbeinstinctive,inherenttoourpsy- entGeorgeBush,inhisaddresstothejointhouses
chologicalmakeuporitcanbehistoricallyspecific. ofCongressshortlyafterSeptember11stated“This
Privatefears,suchasphobias,arelegaciesofindi- istheworld’sfight.Thisiscivilisation’sfight”(cited
vidual psychologies and experiences. The fear of inBrown,2002,p.295).Thepoliticaldiscourseon
terrorism however, is typically a community fear terrorism in Australia is one in which Australia is
arisingoutofconflictsbetweensocieties.Community recurrentlyportrayedasbeingatthreatofanimmin-
fearimpelssocietiestore-affirmtheircollectiveal- entterroristattack.Inaseriesofmediareleasessince
legiancetoasetofcommonpoliticalvaluesandto theSeptember11attacks,Australia’sPrimeMinister
mobilizeagainstanidentifiedthreattothesevalues. John Howard has recurrently referred to Australia
Thisoftenfindsexpressioninaggression,marginal- as being at imminent threat of a terrorist attack. In
isation,alienationandrejectionofanythingorany- December2002thePrimeMinisterreleasedthefirst
one who challenges the shared values and cultural ofwhatwastobemanycounter-terrorismpackages
worldviewsofaparticularsociety. and issued a media release stating “Australia has
Since the terrorist attacks on the World Trade beenataheightenedlevelofnationalsecurityalert
Centre and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001, a since September 11 2001. This extended period of
newdiscourseofterrorismhasemergedasawayof heightenedalertforactsofterrorismisunpreceden-
expressinghowtheworldhaschangedanddefining tedinAustralia’shistory”(NationalSecurityCam-
thewaythingsaretoday(Altheide,2004).Terrorism paign,2002).Earlierthatyear,aftertheBalibomb-
has become the new metonym for our time where ings in Indonesia in October, the Australian Prime
the ‘war on terror’ refers to a perpetual state of Minister announced amendments to Australia’s
alertnessaswellasarangeofstrategicoperations, counter-terrorismlaws,reiteratedhispreviousstate-
border control policies, internal security measures mentsaboutsecurityandaddedthattheBalibomb-
and public awareness campaigns such as ‘be alert, ingswereapersonalattackonAustralia,“Theterror-
notalarmed’(Aly,2005).The‘atmosfear’ofterror istattacksontheUnitedStateslastyearrevealedthat
haspermeatedtheconstructionoftheWesternworld wearenowoperatinginanewsecurityenvironment.
as constantly at threat of terrorism. The media and The Bali bombings tragically brought that directly
politicalconstructionofSeptember11andthesub- andpersonallyhometoAustralians”(Counter-terror-
sequent‘waronterror’isoneinwhichtheWestis ism review, 2002). In a media release on the
in a perpetual state of alert from a foreign, alien, strengthening of the counter terrorism laws, the
politicallydefined‘other’,where,asBrianMassumi PrimeMinisterstated,“whilewehavebeenfortunate
(2005) states, “Insecurity…is the new normal” (p. nottosufferaterroristattackonoursoil,Australians
31). have been the victims of attack overseas and Aus-
The evolving media and popular discourse on traliaitselfhasbeenatargetforterroristsinthepast”.
terrorismframesthewaronterrorasaglobalbattle In reference to the need for legislative reform, the
between‘us’and‘them’and‘theWest’and‘others’, Prime Minister referred specifically to the circum-
whereby the ‘others’ become the objects of fear, stancesof theLondonterrorattacks,“Theterrorist
concern and suspicion. Framed in a rhetoric that attacksontheLondontransportsysteminJulyhave
portrays it as a battle for the Western values of raisednewissuesforAustraliaandhighlightedthe
democracyandfreedom,the‘waronterror’becomes needforfurtheramendmentstoourlaws”(Counter-
not just an eventin spaceand timebut a metonym terrorism laws strengthened, 2005). The govern-
for a new world order drawing on distinctions ment’sapparentinsistencethatAustraliaisatthreat
between‘us’and‘them’and‘theWest’and‘others’ of an imminent terrorist attack is captured in the
and motivating collective identity based on a con- National Security Information Campaign, “Let’s
structionof‘us’asvictimsand‘them’astheobjects LookOutForAustralia”,firstlaunchedinDecember
offear,concernandsuspicion.Therhetoricusedin 2002.InSeptember2004,anewphaseofthecam-
the ‘war on terror’ is characterised by the familiar paignwaslaunchedentitled“HelpProtectAustralia
invocationoftermslikedemocracyandfreedomto fromTerrorism”.Thecampaignincludestelevision,
make distinctions between ‘the West and the rest’ press,transitandoutdooradvertisingurgingAustrali-
andtolegitimizereferencestocivilizedanduncivil- anstoreport“possiblesignsofterrorismtotheNa-
ANNEALY,MARKBALNAVES 115
tionalSecurityHotline”.Theuseofbothvisualand ism,comparingresponsesfrommembersofWestern
printmediaensuresthatthecampaignishighlyvis- Australia’s Muslim communities with those of the
ibletoAustraliansandcommunicatesamessagethat broadercommunity.Thestudyinvolvedfocusgroups
Australians need to be consistently vigilant about and individual in-depth interviews with Muslim
thethreatofterrorism. Australiansandmembersofthebroadercommunity
Themediaandpopulardiscourseonterrorismin inanexaminationofhowAustralianaudiencesare
Australia has evolved into a debate on the Islamic respondingtotheevolvingmediadiscourseonterror-
presenceinAustraliaportrayedasaclashofcultural ism since the September 11 attacks on the United
values.Thisdiscoursehasbeenassistedbycomments States. Ten focus groups were conducted with 90
fromFederalpoliticians.InanaddresstotheSydney participants from various ethnic backgrounds, reli-
Instituteon23February2006onthetopicofAus- giousandagegroups.Ofthetenfocusgroups,four
tralian Citizenship, the Federal Treasurer, Peter wereheldexclusivelywithAustralianMuslimparti-
Costello, addressing the audience on Australia’s cipants in gender specific groups and one targeted
democratic tradition stated that those who oppose senior citizens. Participants in the focus groups
democratic legislature and do not abide by Aus- rangedinagefrom17toover70,andwererepres-
tralia’slawsshouldberefusedAustraliancitizenship. entativeof28differentethnicgroupsand14different
Heimmediatelyfollowedthiscommentwitharefer- religiousgroups.Onaverage,thefocusgroupslasted
ence to terrorists and those who support them and 90 minutes, though some went on for well over 2
then proceeded single out Muslims as those who hours,andattractedbetween6-11participantswith
have“strongobjections”totheAustralianvaluesof theresearcheractingasmoderator.Theresearcher’s
“loyalty, democracy, tolerance, the rule of law…” strong links with Muslim communities in Western
(Costello, 2006). Shortly afterwards, the Federal Australia(theresearcherisanactivememberofthe
Governmentannounceditsintentiontointroducea WesternAustralianMuslimcommunity)facilitated
formalcitizenshiptestdesignedtotestcommitment therecruitmentofMuslimparticipants,twoofwhich
toasetofilldefined‘Australianvalues’. targeted Muslim youth. Participants in the broader
Theconstructionofthewaronterrorasaglobal community focus groups were recruited using a
battle between ‘the West and the rest’ imbues the combination of methods including the distribution
fearofterrorismwithredemptivequalities,enabling ofaflier,emailandsnowballtechnique.
and facilitating behavioural responses associated Thefocusgroupsdiscussedissuesrelatingtothe
withareaffirmationofidentityandmembershipof mediadiscourseonterrorismandpublicopinionon
acollectivewhilesimultaneouslydenyingmember- Australian Muslims including perceptions of the
shiptothatcollectivetothoseperceivedtobe“oth- terroristthreattoAustralia,thedominantmessages
er”.Thisresponsehasfoundexpressionintheper- in the media discourse on terrorism in relation to
ception of Islam, and by association Australian MuslimsandAustraliansandhowinformationand
Muslims, as an alien, culturally incompatible and opinions about terrorism are circulated. An initial
ominousother. analysis of the focus groups provided themes for
furtherinvestigationthroughaseriesof60in-depth
individualinterviewswithequalnumbersofMuslim
Research Methodology
respondentsandrespondentsfromthebroaderAus-
The research project at Edith Cowan University, tralian community. The individual interviews used
Australian responses to the images and discourses prompts to explore respondents’ constructions of
ofterrorismandtheother:establishingametricof media messages and the influence of the media on
fearisanational,cross-methodological,investigation theiropinionsandperceptions.
ofpublicopinionformation,interpersonalcommu- Thematicanalysistechniqueswereusedtoanalyse
nicationandmediamessages.Theprojectinterrog- the focus group transcripts with the aid of NVivo
ates the key media events and messages, as re- data analysis tool. This approach was apt for the
membered and circulated by specific audiences, to purposeofexaminingtheessentialnatureoffearand
analysedifferentconstructionsof‘fear’,‘terrorism’ torepresentinghowpeopleareexperiencingthefear
and‘theother’inAustraliansociety.Theoutcomes ofterrorismintheireverydaylives.Asensio(2000)
includeaninnovativebarometerofcommunityfear describestheoutcomeofphenomenologicalresearch
andassociatedperceptionsofriskandthefirstAus- as“asetofcategoriesofdescriptionwhichdescribe
tralia-wideanalysisofpublicperceptionsof/reactions thevariationinexperiencesofphenomena”inways
totheterroristthreatandrisk. thatallowresearcherstodeepentheirunderstanding
The first level of inquiry involved an empirical ofthephenomena.Theconstructsderivedfromthe
studyaspartofaPhDresearchactivity.Thepurpose focus group analysis were then used to inform the
ofthisresearchwastocharthowpeopleareconstruct- developmentofasummativescaleofthefearofter-
ingandrespondingtothemediadiscourseonterror- rorism. Variables identified in the focus groups in-
116 INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFTHEDIVERSITY,VOLUME6
formedtheadaptationofrapeandvulnerabilityin- The kind of fear expressed by Muslims is also not
ventoriestocreateaFearofTerrorismSurvey.The surprisinginlightoftheevolvingmediaandpolitical
survey, consisting of 25 questions in a summative discourseonterrorismwhichconstructsAustralian
Likertscale,wasadministeredbytelephoneto750 Muslimsnotonlyasaterroristthreatbutalsoathreat
householdsnationally.Inordertoobtainastatistic- to so called “Australian values” although there is
allyusefulsampleofAustralianMuslims,thesurvey littledetailavailableastowhatexactlythosevalues
was administered to 105 Muslim households, an are and how exactly the presence of Muslims in
over-representative number in comparison to the Australiaconstitutesathreattothem.Muslimparti-
demographicdata,whichplacesMuslimAustralians cipantsexpressedthattheyfelttheywerebeingtar-
atjust1.5%ofthetotalAustralianpopulation1.Based geted by the media and by politicians and that the
onthefindingsfromthefocusgroups,theFearSur- mediafrequentlyidentifiedthemasterrorists.
veyincludedquestionstotestbehaviouralresponses
tothefearofterrorismandselfreportedfeelingsof The media has directed the westerners that it
safety before and after the September 11 terrorist istheMuslims,itisAlQaedawhoarebehind
attacksaswellasquestionsonindividualandcom- itandunfortunatelythepeoplestartlookingat
munityidentity. youlikeoh,you’retheguiltyone.Thelawsays
youareinnocentuntilprovenguiltyandithas
PerceptionsoftheTerroristThreat changedthatrulebysayingyouareguiltyuntil
proveninnocent.Sobasicallywewerevictim-
ParticipantsfromthebroaderAustraliancommunity
ised and anything happens around the world
expressedfearandconcernaboutthethreatofater-
now, any attack, any thing the fingers are
rorist attack on Australia, particularly the threat of
pointedatusnomatterwhat.
“homegrownterrorism”whilemembersofMuslim
communitiesweremoreconcernedaboutthepossible
repercussionsandthebacklashofaterroristattack. BehaviouralResponsestotheFearof
Participants were asked to rate the likelihood of a Terrorism
terroristattackinAustraliaonascalefrom1-5.On
Participants who expressed fear of terrorism ex-
thisscale,non-Muslimsconsistentlyratedthelikeli-
pressedtheirfearintermsofchangesinbehavioural
hood of an attack as either likely or highly likely
patterns.Participantsrelatedtheirfeartothesalience
comparedtoMuslimswhorateditaseitherunlikely
ofmediareportsonglobalterrorismandtheAustrali-
orhighlyunlikely.Furthermore,non-Muslimsindic-
angovernment’smediacampaign.Someparticipants
atedthatitwasmorelikelythatAustraliawouldex-
adopted preventative behaviours such as avoiding
perienceaterroristattackfromwithin(similartothe
publictransportandairtravel.Otherswereunaware
Londonbombings)thanfromanexternalsourcesuch
oftheirownanxietiesuntiltheywereplacedinsitu-
asAlQaeda.Participantswerealsoaskedtoindicate
ationsinwhichtheirfearmotivatedthemtotakeon
on a scale from 1-5 how anxious or worried they
assertive or precautionary behaviours such as in-
were about the possible government response to a
creasedawarenessoftheirsurroundings.Oneparti-
terroristattackinAustraliaandtheimpactofaterror-
cipantforexamplerelatedthefollowingstoryofher
ist attack on themselves or their family. On this
reactiontoanunattendedbagonpubictransport:
question,Muslimsconsistentlyratedtheirlevelsof
anxietyhigherthannon-Muslims. I was in Melbourne in December on holiday
Thisisnotsurprisingwhenyouconsidersomeof withmyfamilyandcaughtatramintothecity;
thereportsofaggressionandvilificationthatcame andthissayssomethingaboutme,thatI’veac-
out after the September 11 2001 attacks in the US tually adopted those messages. But there was
where Australian Muslims were targeted. One re- a bag that was left in the middle of the tram,
spondent who was working at a Muslim college at butitwassortofaroundpeakhourtime.SoI
thetimerecalls: sat there with my sister trying to discuss
whetherornotwewerebeingstupidaboutthe
Icametoworkinthemorning.Everybodywas
factthattherewasabagonthistram,andwhat
scared about the security of the school so we
arewegoingtodo!Wementionedittothetram
lockedupthegates.Therewasthisnotiongoing
guyandhewaslike‘Ohyeah’…
onthatthechildrenmightbeharmed,theschool
might be damaged in one way or another. Severalparticipantsstatedthatintheimmediateaf-
Everyonewasconcernedaboutthesafetyofthe termathtotheterroristattacksinNewYork,London
children. Because people believed that there and Bali they ceased going out into public places
wasgoingtobeabacklashinevitably such as shopping centres. Four participants stated
1ABSDatafromthe2001Census.Availablefromwww.omi.wa.gov.au
ANNEALY,MARKBALNAVES 117
thattheyhadchangedtravelplanstoBaliafterthe ceivingthe‘BeAlert,NotAlarmed’packincreased
2002 bombings. The most frequently cited change theirleveloffearandanxietyofaterroristattackas
inbehaviourwasanincreaseinsuspicionofothers, thefollowingstoryillustrates:
describedbyonefocusgroupas“paranoia”,particu-
larlysuspicionofpeoplewhoconformedtotheme- TheinformationthatI’vebeengettingismainly
diaimageofterrorists: from the mass media and current affair pro-
grams.Ididn’treallytakemuchnoticeofany-
It’s just funny, you know “Watch out for Aus- thing until John Howard sent out his, I can’t
tralia”thing.Imeangoshifsomeonelooksat remember what it was called, the terrorism
yousideways,that’salmostanactofterrorism. pack,whattodoifwewereunderattack,and
Irememberwewereonaplaneandtherewas I sort of thought ‘Wow maybe we are more at
this big guy with a beard sitting a few rows riskthenIthinkweare’.
ahead of us. He had a box on his lap and he At first I didn’t read it, but my eldest son he
waslookingkindofnervousandhewasmum- readitandhefollowedtheinstructionsandhe
blingsomething,sortoftalkingtohimself.My got himself stocks and everything at the front
mumgrabbedmyarmandshewaspanicking. doorandherungmeandthesecondsonsaid,
ThisguystartedtoopentheboxandMumwas “look,we’dbetterdothesameandwe’dbetter
like “oh my God, oh my God he’s a terrorist. have a plan of where we’re going to go”. So
He’sgotabomb”.Thenheopenedtheboxand wedecidedwe’dallgototheyoungestsonin
pulledoutadimsum. N______ and I was asked to ring him. Well I
ranghim.Helaughedhimselfsillyandhesaid
Muslimparticipantsexpressedthemostacutebeha- “OhMum,Ithoughtyouhadmoresensethan
viouralresponsestoglobalterroristevents.Inseveral that”.Andhesaid,“OKifithappenscanyou
cases, female participants who wear the hijab (the let me know when you’re coming because we
traditional Islamic dress which covers the hair) re- canpackupandgo.We’vegotathreebedroom
latedperiodsofanxietyaboutventuringintopublic house and not enough room”. So you know I
spaces for fear of being vilified or attacked. Often endedupbeingrational,sortofthinkingthisis
thisanxietywasnotbasedonpersonalexperiences allquitestupid,andIthrewJohnnyHoward’s
or relationships with individual members of the pack in the bin and I got all this stuff that I’d
broadercommunity,whichwereoftendescribedas boughtandweateit!
positive, but on a perception of the Muslim com-
munity at risk and an assumption that the broader Thesalienceofterrorisminthemediaandpolitical
communitywassusceptibletomediamessagesthat discoursemaybeseenasstrategicpointswhichim-
encouragedhostilitytowardsMuslims.Onewoman pact on the level of community fear and anxiety
stated that after the 9/11 attacks she did not leave aboutterrorism.Strategicpointsareeventsorexper-
her home for two weeks. Reports about attacks on iencesthatresultinaheightenedawarenessofterror-
Muslimwomenwearinghijabinpublicspacescircu- ismandasubsequentincreaseinthefearofaterrorist
latedamongtheMuslimcommunitiesandcultivated attack. Apart from media salience and the govern-
fear among members of the Muslim communities ment’smediacampaign,thefocusgroupsalsohigh-
andaperceptionthatthecommunitywasbeingvili- lighted a number of other strategic points in the
fiedandheldresponsibleforterroristactivities. construction of fear: knowing someone who was a
victim of a terrorist attack; having resided in or
havingclosefamilymemberswhoresideinLondon
FearSalience
orNewYork;talkingtootherswhoseopinionsare
FocusgroupparticipantsfromthebroaderAustralian influentialonone’sownthreatperception.
communitystatedthattheirlevelsoffearandanxiety
overapossibleterroristattackincreasedwhenmedia
WhatPeopleFear
reports about global terrorist activities were most
salient. Participants were able to trace heightened Apart from expressing fear and anxiety about the
levelsoffearandanxietytomediareportsonterrorist terroristthreattoAustralia,participantsinthefocus
activities. Many stated that, at these times, they groups also expressed fear of the government re-
wouldtalktoopinionleadersinorderto“putthings sponsetotheterroristattacksinNewYork,Madrid,
intoperspective”.Manydescribedtheirfearas“irra- LondonandBalibasedonaperceptionthatthecor-
tional”andperceiveditasanegativeimpactofthe respondingincreaseinsecurityimpingesonindividu-
mediadiscourse. alfreedomsanddenotesashifttowardsthecreation
The Australian government’s media campaign ofa“policestate”.
also drew responses from the focus group parti- ThefocusgroupsfindingsindicatethatbothAus-
cipants. In particular, participants reported that re- tralianMuslimsandthoseinthebroadercommunity
118 INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFTHEDIVERSITY,VOLUME6
believethatthegovernmentandmediadiscourseis Muslims expressed their fear and anxiety not only
constructedwiththeoverridingaimofinstillingfear intermsofselfbutalsointermsoftherisktotheir
withcommentssuchas:“I thinkthemessagesthat families, community and to Islam. The following
arecomingintousaredefinitely‘BeAfraid’,‘Watch commentsfromMuslimparticipantswhoremarked
yourBack’‘BeVeryCareful’,‘Don’ttrustanyone”; ondiscussionswithfellowAustralianMuslimsafter
“ “this message of fear is being jammed down our theSeptember11attackssummarisehowAustralian
throats”and“Therearetheseevilterroristsaround Muslimsperceivetheterroristthreat:
andyouandyourtwopointfourkidswithyourone
and a half cars and your nice suburb and that they We discussed the impact on Muslims. So we
might be right next to you ... like trying to create were concerned about ourselves, our people
unease,suspicions..”.Muslimparticipantsexpressed youknowandIslamaswell.
an acuteawarenessof themselvesas theobjectsof MyfeelingwasthereactionwouldbesobigI
fear and suspicion: “the government love to create didn’twantittoaffectmypeople
amonsteryouknowtofeedandtofrightenpeople-
nowwearethemonster”. DevelopingtheFearofTerrorismScale
Severalscaleshavebeendevelopedthatattemptto
PersonalRiskandCommunityRisk
measurethefearofrapeandthefearofcrime(Liska,
Among participants from the broader community, 1988; Senn, 1996; Warr, 1990). For the most part,
personal risk was perceived to be lower than com- investigationsintothefearofcrimehavefocusedon
munity risk. In other words, participants felt that a describingandexplainingvariationsinfearamong
terroristattackwasimminentbutthattheywerenot different genders, ages and social groups (Warr,
likelytobevictimsofaterroristattack.Thisispartly 1990).Intermsofexaminingfearphenomenologic-
duetothefactthatmostparticipantsthoughtthata allyinordertounderstandfearasasocialforcethat
terrorist attack would most likely occur in Eastern impacts on behaviour, two general patterns have
Statecitieswithhigherpopulationdensitiesandwith emerged. One concerns preventative or restrictive
national landmarks such as the Harbour Bridge or behavioursinwhichindividualswilltakemeasures
Opera House. It can also, in part, be explained in toavoidplacesandsituationsperceivedasdanger-
termsoftheimpersonalimpact/unrealisticoptimism ous.Theotherconcernsprotectiveorassertivebeha-
theory which proposes that media messages about vioursinwhichindividualswillundertakeprotective
the terrorist threat that inspire fear affect people’s measuresinplacesandsituationsperceivedasdan-
perceptionsofsocialriskbutdonotnecessarilyaffect gerous.
theirperceptionsofpersonalrisk. In surveying the range of scales that could be
modified to include the constructs extracted from
Ibelievethatperhapswehaveaterroristthreat, the first stage of the project, the researchers found
not, I don’t feel in Perth, but when I’m over thattherewerenoscalesthatmeasuredbothpatterns
EastIdo. of behavioural responses to fear. There are also no
itmightnothappeninPerthbutdefinitelythe existingscalesthatmeasurepersonalperceptionsof
likesofSydney,Melbourne...Ithinkwillexper- riskaswellascommunityperceptionsofrisk.The
iencesomething. Fear of Rape Scale developed by Gordon & Riger
(1979), provided a sound basis for developing the
Muslimparticipantshoweverrelatedaperceptionof FearofTerrorismScale.Modificationstothisscale
riskatboththecommunityandpersonallevel.Unlike includedtheomissionofsomequestionsspecificto
members of the broader community however, context of rape and the inclusion of questions de-
Muslims did not define risk in terms of a terrorist signedtomeasuretheconstructsthatevolvedfrom
attackonAustraliansoilbutintermsofabacklash thephenomenologicalanalysis.Thesequestionsre-
fromthebroadercommunity.AsAlyandBalnaves lated to changes in behavioural patterns, strategic
(2005)note: pointsintheconstructionoffearsuchasthereceipt
ofthe“Bealert,notalarmed”package,personaland
Theatmosfearofterrorfindsmanyexpressions
communityriskperceptionsandtopersonalexperi-
among the Muslim communities in Australia:
encesofterrorism.Respondentswerealsoaskedto
the fear of backlash from some sectors of the
rate their feelings of safety before and after the
widercommunity;thefearofsubversionofIs-
September 11 attacks as the focus groups revealed
lamicidentityinmeetingtherequirementsofa
thatpeopleweremorelikelytoarticulatetheirfeel-
politically defined ‘moderate’ Islam; the fear
ingsintermsofsafetyasopposedtofearandanxiety.
of being identified as a potential terrorist or
Respondentswereaskedtoratetheiranswersalong
‘person of interest’and the fear of potentially
afivepointLickertscaleinresponsetothefollowing
losingtherightsbestowedonallothercitizens.
items:
ANNEALY,MARKBALNAVES 119
• Howsafedidyoufeelbefore11September2001 • Ingeneral,Iamafraidofpeople
• Howsafedidyoufeelafter11September2001 • WhenIamchoosingaseatonthebusortrain,I
• Ithinktwicebeforegoingtoacrowdedshopping amconsciousofwhoissittingnearby
centre
• If I have to take the train, tram or bus I feel
InitialFindings
anxious
• Howsafedoyoufeeltakingpublictransport? The results of the Fear of Terrorism Scale confirm
• Howsafedoyoufeeltravelingbyairline? adramaticchangeinthereportedfeelingsofsafety
beforeandaftertheSeptember11terroristattacks.
Respondentswere asked to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ 710respondents(over90%)reportedfeelingeither
tothefollowingquestionsdesignedtotestbehaviour- very safe or fairly safe before the terrorist attacks.
alchanges,responsestostrategicpoints,experiences In comparisononly487 (65%) statedthattheyfelt
ofterroristattacksandcommunityriskperceptions: either very safe or fairly safe after the terrorist at-
tacks.Resultsalsoshowedanegligibleresponseto
• If you saw an unattended bag at a bus or train feeling‘veryunsafe’priortotheterroristattacks(11
stoporinanyotherpublicplace,wouldyoure- responses)increasingto92(8.1%)aftertheattacks.
portit? Consistentwithpatternsreflectedinfearofcrime
• Ifyousawanunattendedbagatwork,wouldyou surveys,gender,incomeandlevelsofeducationim-
reportit? pacted on feelings of fear and safety in relation to
• Haveyouoverthelast2yearstraveledtoanyof the terrorist risk. Table 1 illustrates that, 204 men
thesecountries-US,England,Bali,Spain,Italy, and 224 women respondents reported feeling very
Singapore,Indonesia/Bali,Thailand,Malaysia? safebeforethe9/11attacks.Thesenumbersdeclined
• Doyouintendtotraveltoanyofthesecountries to125and82respectivelyaftertheattacks.Inaddi-
inthenextyear? tion, the number of women who reported that they
• Didyoureceivethe‘Bealert’package? feltveryunsafeaftertheattacksincreasedfrom3to
• Didyoukeepyour‘Bealert’package? 69comparedtoanincreasefrom8to23formen.
• Didyoureadit? Reported feelings of safety before and after the
• Didyou,ordoyouknowanyonewhowaskilled terroristattacksvariedbetweenthetop10andbottom
orharmedinaterroristattack? 10incomehouseholdssurveyedasshowninTable
• Whatwasyourrelationshipwiththatperson? 2. Those in the bottom 10 income households sur-
• Doyouknowanyonewhohadaclosefriendwho veyedweremorelikelytofeeleither‘abitsafe’or
askilledorharmedinaterroristattack? ‘veryunsafe’aftertheSeptember11attacks.How-
• Doyoufeelthatyoubelongtoacommunitythat ever,bothcategoriesreportedadecreaseinfeeling
isviewednegativelybyothers? ‘verysafe’aftertheattackswithonlyaslightvari-
• Do you feel that the media portrays you or the ationbetweenthetopandbottom10incomehouse-
communityyoubelongtonegatively? holdssurveyed.Bothcategoriesalsoshowedanin-
creaseinreportedfeelingsof‘fairlysafe’and‘abit
Thefinalsurveyincorporatedsomequestionsfrom
safe’,howeverthiswasmatchedbydecreasesinre-
theFearofRapescaleonrestrictiveandprotective
portedfeelingsof‘verysafe’andincreasesinfeel-
behaviours that were used to gain a sense of how
ingsof‘veryunsafe’.
safeorunsafepeoplefeltwithintheirownneighbour-
Table 3 indicates that respondents with lower
hoodsorcommunities,suchas:
levelsofeducation(Year12orequivalentandbelow)
feltlesssafethanrespondentswithatertiaryquali-
• Iavoidgoingoutalone
fication. 376 respondents with year 12 or below
• Iaskfriendtowalkmetomycarinpubliccar
schoolingreportedfeelingeither‘verysafe’or‘fairly
parks
safe’beforetheterroristattackscomparedwith340
• Ifeelconfidentwalkingaloneinmyneighbour-
respondents with a tertiary qualification. Reported
hood
feelingsofsafetydecreasedforbothgroupsafterthe
• IfIheardthatsomeonehadbeenassaultedinmy
attackswithamoresignificantdecreaseof143for
neighbourhood,Iwouldn’tleavethehouseunless
respondentswithlowerlevelsofeducationcompared
Ireallyhadto.
to103fortertiaryqualifiedrespondents.Respondents
withlowerlevelsofeducationwerealsomorelikely
Anumberofquestionsthattestedgenerallevels
toreportfeeling‘veryunsafe’aftertheterroristat-
of suspicion and wariness of others were also re-
tacksatalmostdoubletherateofrespondentswith
tained:
tertiaryqualifications.Whilebothcategoriesreported
• Iamwaryofpeoplegenerally adecreaseinfeelingsof‘verysafe’aftertheterrorist
• Ingeneral,Iamsuspiciousofpeople attacks, the shift in responses were more heavily
120 INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFTHEDIVERSITY,VOLUME6
skewedtowardsthelesserfeelingsofsafety(‘abit levelsofeducationthanforrespondentswithtertiary
safe’and‘veryunsafe’)forrespondentswithlower qualifications.
Table1:FeelingsofSafetybeforeandafter9/11(RepresentedinBrackets),bySex
Verysafe Fairlysafe Abitsafe Veryunsafe Don’tknow
Male 204(125) 108(122) 10(60) 8(23) 1(1)
Female 224(82) 174(158) 15(109) 3(69) 3(1)
p<0.001
Table2:FeelingsofSafetybeforeandafter9/11(RepresentedinBrackets),byTop10andBottom10
IncomeHouseholds
Verysafe Fairlysafe Abitsafe Veryunsafe Dontknow
Top10 167(74) 97(113) 13(64) 4(30) 1(1)
Bottom10 170(94) 111(114) 5(54) 2(8) 3(1)
Specialsample* 91(39) 74(53) 7(51) 5(34) 0(0)
*SpecialsampleisMoslemrespondents
p <0.001
Table3:FeelingsofSafetybeforeandafter9/11,byEducation
Verysafe Fairlysafe Abitsafe Veryunsafe Don’tknow
Year12orequivalentandbelow 218(108) 158(116) 20(96) 4(60) 2(1)
TertiaryqualifiedBachelordegree
orabove,Advanceddiploma,Dip- 210(99) 130(138) 5(73) 7(32) 2(1)
lomaortradecertificate
p <0.001
TheresultsoftheSurveyshowacorrelationbetween firmsthat,“ThebiggestimpactofprejudiceonArab
communityperceptionsandfeelingsofsafety.Table and Muslim Australians is the substantial increase
4showsthatrespondentswhoconsideredthemselves infear”(HREOC,2004,p.77).TheAustralianAr-
membersofcommunitiesthatwereperceivednegat- abic Council reported a massive rise in reports of
ivelybythemediafeltlesssafeaftertheterroristat- discrimination and vilification of Arab Australians
tacks. This correlationis supported by quantitative in the month after the terrorist attacks (p.43). The
researchincludingthefindingsofthefocusgroups perceivedmediabiasagainstMuslimsandArabsis
aswellascurrentliteratureontheimpactofaper- perhapsthemostsalientissueofconcernforAustrali-
ceived negative media image Australian Muslims. anMuslimsandhasbeenthesubjectofdebateand
TheHumanRightsandEqualOpportunityCommis- discussionatnumerousforums.2
sion,inthewakeoftheSeptember11attacks,con-
Table4:FeelingsofSafetybeforeandafter9/11,byPerceivedNegativeMediaPortrayaloftheCommunity
inwhichRespondentbelongs
Verysafe Fairlysafe Abitsafe Veryunsafe Dontknow
Yes 117(51) 95(79) 12(63) 4(35) 0(0)
No 311(156) 187(201) 13(106) 7(57) 4(2)
Total 207 280 169 92 4(2)
p <0.026
2OneoftheresearchersisanactivememberoftheWesternAustralianMuslimcommunityandhasattendedseveralforumsandconsultations
wherethenegativeimageofMuslimsinthemediahasbeenraisedasasignificantissueofconcern.