Table Of ContentProgrès in ASTRONAUTICS and AERONAUTICS
(a continuation of Progress in Astronautics and Rocketry)
A series of volumes sponsored by
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10019
Progress Series Editor
Martin Summerfield
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Titles in the Series
Volume 1. SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKET RESEARCH. 1960
Editor: MARTIN SUMMERFIELD, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Volume 2. LIQUID ROCKETS AND PROPELLANTS. I960
Editors: LOREN E. BOLLINGER, The Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio; MARTIN GOLDSMITH, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Cali-
fornia; AND ALEXIS W. LEMMON JR., Battelle Memorial Institute, Colum-
bus, Ohio
Volume 3. ENERGY CONVERSION FOR SPACE POWER. 1901
Editor: NATHAN W. SNYDER, Institute for Defense Analyses, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Volume 4. SPACE POWER SYSTEMS. 1961
Editor: NATHAN W. SNYDER, Institute for defense Analyses, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Volume 5. ELECTROSTATIC PROPULSION. 1961
Editors: DAVID B. LANGMUIR, Space Technology Laboratories, Inc.,
Canoga Park, California; ERNST STUHLINGER, NASA George C. Marshall
Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama; AND J. M. SELLEN JR., Space
Technology Laboratories, Inc., Canoga Park, California
Volume 6. DETONATION AND TWO-PHASE FLOW. 1962
Editors: S. S. PENNER, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Cali-
fornia; AND F. A. WILLIAMS, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts
Volume 7. HYPERSONIC FLOW RESEARCH. 1962
Editor: FREDERICK R. RIDDELL, Avco Corporation, Wilmington, Massa-
chusetts
Volume 8. GUIDANCE AND CONTROL. 1962
Editors: ROBERT E. ROBERSON, Consultant, Fullerton, California; AND
JAMES S. FARRIOR, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Sunnyvale,
California
ACADEMIC PRESS · NEW YORK AND LONDON
Titles in the Series (continued)
Volume 9. ELECTRIC PROPULSION DEVELOPMENT. 1903
Editor: ERNST STUHLINGER, NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight
Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Volume 10. TECHNOLOGY OF LUNAR EXPLORATION. 1963
Editors: CLIFFORD I. CUMMINGS AND HAROLD R. LAWRENCE, Jet Propul-
sion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
Volume 11. POWER SYSTEMS FOR SPACE FLIGHT. 1903
Editors: MORRIS A. ZIPKIN AND RUSSELL N. EDWARDS, Space Power and
Propulsion Section, Missiles and Space Division, General Electric Com-
pany, Cincinnati, Ohio
Volume 12. IONIZATION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE GASES. 1903
Editor: KURT E. SHULER,National Bureau of Standards, Washington,D.C.
Associate Editor: JOHN B. FENN, Princeton University, Princeton, New
Jersey
Volume 13. GUIDANCE AND CONTROL —II. 1964
Editors: ROBERT C. LANGFORD, General Precision Inc., Little Falls, New
Jersey; AND CHARLES J. MUNDO, Institute of Naval Studies, Cambridge,
Massachusetts
Volume 14. CELESTIAL MECHANICS AND ASTRODYNAMICS. 1904
Editor: VICTOR G. SZEBEHELY, Yale University Observatory, New Haven,
Connecticut
Volume 15. HETEROGENEOUS COMBUSTION. 1964
Editors : HANS G. WOLFHARD, Research and Engineering Support Division,
Institute for Defense Analyses, Washington, D. C; IRVIN GLASS MAN,
Guggenheim Laboratories for Aerospace Propulsion Sciences, Depart-
ment of Aerospace and Mechanical Sciences, Princeton University, Prince-
ton, New Jersey; AND LEON GREEN JR., Research and Technology Division,
Air Force Systems Command, Washington, D. C.
Volume 10. SPACE POWER SYSTEMS ENGINEERING. 1906
Editors : GEORGE C. SZEGO, Institute for Defense Analyses, Arlington, Vir-
ginia; AND J. EDWARD TAYLOR, TRW Inc., Cleveland, Ohio
Volume 17. METHODS IN ASTRODYNAMICS AND CELESTIAL MECHANICS.
1966
Editors: RAYNOR L. DUNCOMBE, Nautical Almanac Office, U. S. Naval
Observatory, Washington, D. C; AND VICTOR G. SZEBEHELY, Yale Univer-
sity Observatory, New Haven, Connecticut
Volume 18. THERMOPHYSICS AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL OF SPACECRAFT
AND ENTRY VEHICLES. 1966
Editor: GERHARD B. HELLER, NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight
Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Volume 19. COMMUNICATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY. 1966
Editor: RICHARD B. MARSTEN, Astro-Electronics Division, Radio Corpora-
tion of America, Princeton, New Jersey
Volume 20. THERMOPHYSICS OF SPACECRAFT AND PLANETARY BODIES
Radiation Properties of Solids and the Electromagnetic Radiation
Environment in Space. 1967
Editor: GERHARD B. HELLER, NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight
Center, Huntsville, Alabama
(Other volumes are planned)
ACADEMIC PRESS · NEW YORK AND LONDON
Concept by Roger C. Linton
NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center,
Huntsville, Alabama
Thermophysics of Spacecraft
and Planetary Bodies
Radiation Properties of Solids and the
Electromagnetic Radiation Environment in Space
Edited by
Gerhard B. Heller
NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center,
Huntsville, Alabama
A collection of technical papers
drawn mainly from
the AIAA Thermophysics Specialist Conference,
April 17-20, 1907,
subsequently revised for this volume
@
ACADEMIC PRESS · NEW YORK · LONDON · 1967
COPYRIGHT © 1967, BY ACADEMIC PRESS INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM,
BY PHOTOSTAT, MICROFILM, OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT
WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM THE PUBLISHERS.
ACADEMIC PRESS INC.
Ill Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003
United Kingdom Edition published by
ACADEMIC PRESS INC. (LONDON) LTD.
Berkeley Square House, London W.l
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 67-30649
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
THE THERMOPHYSICS COMMITTEE OF THE
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICS
AND ASTRONAUTICS
Membership in Years 1966 and 1967
Gerhard B. Heller, Chairman 1966 and 1967
NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
Jerry T. Bevans (1966 and 1967)
TRW Systems, Redondo Beach, Calif.
C. P. Butler (1966)
U. S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco,
Calif.
Wilson A. Clayton (1966 and 1967)
The Boeing Company, Seattle, Wash.
Donald K. Edwards (1967)
University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.
R. E. Gaumer (1966)
Physical Systems Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.
James F. Haskins (1966)
General Dynamics/Convair, San Diego, Calif.
Georg Hass (1966)
United States Electronics Command, Fort Belvoir, Va.
Herbert B. Holl (1967)
U. S. Army Missile Command, Huntsville, Ala.
Marvin R. Holter (1967)
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Samuel Katzoff (1966 and 1967)
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va.
Frank Kreith (1967)
University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
John W. Lucas (1967)
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
vu
L. A. McKellar (1966 and 1967)
Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, Sunnyvale, Calif.
Conrad P. Mook (1966 and 1967)
NASA Headquarters, Washington, D. C.
Carr B. Neel (1966)
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.
J. T. Neu (1967)
General Dynamics/Convair, San Diego, Calif.
Simon Ostrach (1967)
Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio
Joseph C. Richmond (1966)
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
Leo F. Salzberg (1966 and 1967)
Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio
Sinclaire M. Scala (1967)
General Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
Milton Schach (1966)
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
R. A. Seban (1966)
University of California, Berkeley, Calif.
William C. Snoddy (1966 and 1967)
NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Hunts ville, Ala.
Saul Sokolsky (1966)
Aerospace Corporation, San Bernardino, Calif.
Donald L. Stierwalt (1967)
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Corona, Calif.
Elmer R. Streed (1967)
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.
Y. S. Touloukian (1966 and 1967)
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
J. A. Wiebelt (1967)
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla.
Gene A. Zerlaut (1966 and 1967)
IIT Research Institute, Chicago, 111.
vin
PREFACE
Thermophysics is a multi-disciplinary area of science and engi-
neering that has acquired new prominence within the aerospace field.
It is based on a number of well-established scientific disciplines: radi-
ative and conductive heat transfer; thermophysical properties; solid
state physics; and thermodynamics. The physics and thermodynamics
of radiation, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation, solar radiation, and
infrared (IR) radiation, constitute an important part of thermophysics.
The challenging tasks provided by many present and future aerospace
projects have resulted in a dynamic and rapidly evolving field. Areas
of keen interest that have developed during the past ten years are the
thermophysical studies connected with the entry of missiles, satellites,
and space probes into planetary atmospheres; the studies of thermo-
physical properties of solids by theoretical and experimental research;
development of more advanced and sophisticated laboratory apparatus
for the measurement of optical properties; the thermal control of space
vehicles; the study of the space environment and its effect on thermal
control surfaces; and the planning, implementation, and evaluation of
thermal space flight experiments. Some of the most significant results
that emerged from these researches and engineering developments were
published in the fall of 1965 in Volume 18 of this Series. Additional
studies in this fast-moving field, carried out largely during the past two
years, are covered in the present volume.
Several subjects have gained in importance in the thermophysics
field in recent years. One of these is the study of the natural thermal
environment of planetary bodies, including the earth and the moon. The
measurement of radiative and optical properties by satellite-borne re-
mote sensing techniques has gained in importance in this country and
abroad because of the many applications to programs of practical im-
pact, such as surveys of forests and agricultural crops, watershed
management, geological surveys, earth mapping and geodesy, ocean-
ography, weather forecasting, and many more. The interest of the
thermophysics community centers especially on the types of measure-
ments that must be made and on the satellite instrumentation to accom-
plish such measurements. Whether we deal with artificial surfaces
such as those on satellites, with natural surfaces such as forests or
geological formations on the surface of the earth, or with craters and
mountains on the surface of the moon, we are dealing with radiation. In
each of these applications we analyze the emittances, reflectances, and
IX
transmittances of solid state matter composing such surfaces and their
environment; we determine the dependence of radiative fluxes on the
angles of incidence and on the bidirectional viewing angles; and we ana-
lyze the polarization of the radiation. The fundamental approach is
the same for each of these diverse applications. The great amount of
knowledge that has been accumulated in thermophysical research of sat-
ellite surfaces for thermal control should be of interest for investiga-
tions of natural surfaces.
The present book offers a selection of the most advanced studies
in the dynamic field of thermophysics in the last several years. They
have been grouped according to subject matter into six chapters. Chap-
ter I deals with radiation properties of solid state materials (6 papers)
and the measuring techniques in the laboratory (5 papers). The instru-
mentation papers also contain new results from their measurements.
The trend in thermophysical laboratory research demonstrated by these
papers is toward more sophisticated laboratory techniques and toward
a deeper understanding of the radiative properties. The physical char-
acterization of the surfaces has been done with greater care and the
measuring techniques have been examined in greater detail than in the
past. This attention to detail,was found essential in order to resolve
the errors and nonreproducible results obtained by routine measure-
ments in early investigations.
The papers in Chapter II cover another very important facet of
thermophysics, the thermophysical properties of surfaces used for
spacecraft. The thermal equilibrium of vehicles in space depends on
the radiative exchange between all surfaces and the space environment.
Therefore, the radiative characteristics of these thermal control sur-
faces become important, and the absorptivities of these surfaces for
solar and IR radiation become vital elements in the thermal control of
spacecraft.
An important point for space applications is that exposure to the
space environment affects the surface characteristics, and therefore
considerable effort is being expended in research to understand and to
be able to predict their TtdegradationM by the space environment. (For
a description of the environment due to charged particles, the reader
is referred to the paper by Hess et al., p. 327 of Volume 18 of this
Series. ) This aspect is covered in Chapter Π. The papers show con-
siderable progress toward the understanding of the interaction of UV
radiation and charged particles with thermal control coatings, but many
questions still remain to be answered. An important recent discovery
was that of the bleaching effects of air on thermal control coatings after
irradiation. Both oxygen and nitrogen have an effect. This makes every
measurement of UV and charged particle degradation suspect if the
sample has been taken out of the vacuum chamber and exposed to air
prior to the measurement of solar and IR absorptance. The only ac-
ceptable method is that of making the measurements of optical proper-
ties in situ, i. e., inside the vacuum chamber used for the irradiation.
x
The papers of Chapter Π also include solid state physics studies
of the processes involved in the interaction of UV radiation with solids.
There are studies of the generation of color centers, of the rate con-
stants involved, and of the identification and careful analysis of a num-
ber of different and sometimes competing processes. Investigations
have been extended into the far UV, below the absorption edge. It has
been found that the effectiveness of UV photons to produce defects in the
solid matter is a strong function of the photon energy below the absorp-
tion edge. An unexplained fact is that the reflectance for solar radia-
tion increases with UV irradiation below the absorption edge for some
solid materials, whereas it decreases above the absorption edge. An-
other unsolved problem is that, for composite materials, such as paints,
the spectral sensitivities of the components to UV radiation have not
been analyzed separately.
Chapter ΙΠ includes papers on results of thermal flight experi-
ments and on the radiation characteristics of planetary bodies. The re-
sults from the flight degradation experiments show, in most cases, a
discrepancy if compared to laboratory experiments made with the same
surfaces. This proves that the combined environment in space is ap-
parently different from present laboratory simulations. Another sig-
nificant result is that the effects of the space environment on thermal
control coatings are more severe in deep space beyond several earth
radii than in orbits close to earth. This probably is due mainly to the
effects of the solar wind and other charged particles which are effec-
tively shielded in near earth orbits by the earth's magnetic field. This
fact is significant for synchronous satellites and for lunar and planetary
space vehicles. In several cases the sensors which were flown in sat-
ellite experiments to determine the environmental effects on thermal
control coatings also were used to determine the radiation in space as
it impinges on the spacecraft .surface. This is especially the case for
the papers on earth albedo by Pearson and Neel and the paper by Linton.
The area of planetary thermophysics has gained in strength, as indi-
cated by several papers. Interesting results are reported in the paper
by Snoddy et al. on a simulated lunar eclipse. In the paper by Six et al.
the directionality of lunar IR radiation is discussed on the basis of mea-
surements from telescopes on earth, whereas the paper by Wang deals
with results of directional IR measurements from Surveyor I obtained
on the surface of the moon.
The papers in Chapter IV relate closely to those aspects of previous
chapters dealing with general radiative properties and to the measure-
ments of radiative properties of natural surfaces from satellites. They
cover various aspects of remote sensing of natural surfaces with em-
phasis on the solar radiation and the IR bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The areas covered are instrumentation for remote sensing
and the application of remote sensing to the scientific fields of forestry,
meteorology, and geology. An interesting paper is that of Nordberg
which gives measured results from several meteorological satellites of
the TIROS and NIMBUS class.
xi
