Thermal Testing of Integrated Circuits

211 Pages·2002·6.537 MB·English

by  Josep Altet, Antonio Rubio (auth.)

THERMAL TESTING
OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Thermal Testing of
Integrated Circuits
by
JosepAltet
University Politecnica de Catalunya
and
Antonio Rubio
University Politecnica de Catalunya
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-4419-5287-5 ISBN 978-1-4757-3635-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-3635-9
Printed on acid-free paper
AII Rights Reserved
© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 2002
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception
of any material supplied specificalIy for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Xl
PREFACE xiii
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TESTING OF INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS 1
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. NATURE AND MODELLING OF REALISTIC DEFECTS 3
2.1 Classification of defects 3
2.2 Realistic defect models 5
2.2.1 Defect model for a GOS 5
2.2.2 Bridging defect models 6
2.2.3 Open defect models 6
2.3 Defective behaviours at the electrical level 8
2.3.1 Gate oxide short defects 8
2.3.2 Bridging defect 8
2.3.3 Open defects 9
2.3.4 Conclusions 9
3. FAULT MODELS AND CONVENTIONAL TESTING
STRATEGIES 10
3.1 Fault models 10
3.2 Conventional test strategies 11
4. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TESTING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
12
4.1 Test pattern generation 13
4.2 Design for testability and test standards 13
4.3 Built-in self-testing 14
4.4 The cost of testing 14
v
vi Contents
5. FUTURE PERSPECTNES OF CONVENTIONAL TEST
STRATEGIES 15
5.11DDQ testing 15
5.2Evolution of semiconductor technology and role of 1DDQ testing in
deep submicron circuits 17
6. CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK 18
7. REFERENCES 19
2. THERMAL TRANSFER AND THERMAL COUPLING IN
IC'S 23
1. INTRODUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER AND ITS RELATION TO
THERMODYNAMICS 23
2. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER 25
2.1 The conduction mechanism 25
2.1.1 Thermal resistance 27
2.1.2 Contact resistance 29
2.2 The convection mechanism 31
2.2.1 Natural convection 31
2.2.2 Forced convection 32
2.3 The radiation mechanism 32
3. ENERGY BALANCE IN A MEDIUM: HEAT TRANSFER
EQUATION 35
4. THERMAL ELEMENTS IN IC'S 37
4.1 Heat sources 37
4.1.1 Passive components 38
4.1.2 Active devices 38
4.1.3 Power dissipation due to switching activity 39
4.1.4 Peltier Effect 40
4.2 IC structure: materials and transfer 41
5. EFFECTS OF HEATER TRANSFER IN IC'S 42
5.1 Temperature sensitivity of electronic devices 42
5.1.1 Temperature effects in MOS transistors 42
5.1.2 P-njunction diodes 43
5.1.3 BJT devices 44
5.2 Ageing mechanisms and circuit degradation 45
6. CONCLUSIONS 47
7. APPENDIX: UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 48
8. REFERENCES 49
3. THERMAL ANALYSIS IN INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 53
1. INTRODUCTION 53
2. DEFINITIONS 54
2.1 Thermal analysis versus electro-thermal analysis 54
Contents VB
2.2 Boundary conditions 55
2.2.IExample 1: Application of boundary conditions for an IC
analysis 56
3. THERMAL ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 58
3.1 Analytical methods 59
3.1.IExample 2: Presentation of the method. Calculation of a
static two-dimensional temperature map 60
3.1.2Example 3: Calculation of a three-dimensional time
dependent temperature map 64
3.1.3 Example 4: Thermal analysis in cylindrical coordinates 67
3.1.4 Example 5: AC thermal analysis 70
3.1.5 Example 6: Analysis of multi-layer structures 73
3.2 Numerical methods 78
3.2.1 Finite difference method 78
3 .2.1.1 Nodal equation extraction 79
3.2.1.2 RC modelling of heat transfer 84
3.2.1.3 Reduction ofthe complexity in thermal analysis ofIC's 85
4. ELECTRO-THERMAL ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
91
4.1.1 Example 7: Dynamic electro-thermal procedure 92
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY 94
6. REFERENCES 94
4. TEMPERATURE AS A TEST OBSERVABLE VARIABLE
IN ICS 97
1. INTRODUCTION 97
2. MODIFICATION OF THE THERMAL PATH BETWEEN THE
HEAT SOURCES AND THE HEAT SINK 99
2.1 Example 1: thermal testing of the quality of solder joints. 100
2.2Example 2: thermal testing of the quality ofp ackages 102
3. MODIFICATION OF THE HEAT SOURCES PRESENT IN THE
IC 116
3.1 Identification of defects as heat sources 117
3.1.1 Example 1: Power dissipated in different bridge topologies
119
3.1.2 Example 2: Effects of device scaling and degraded logic
levels. 121
3.1.3Example 3: Power dissipated in CMOS combinational
circuits with a GOS defect. 123
3.1.4 Conclusions 124
3.2 Thermal disturbances generated by heat sources 125
3.2.1 Dynamic thermal characterisation 125
3.2.2 Static thermal characterisation 129
viii Contents
3.3 Location of the heat source 131
3.3.1 Amplitude measurements 132
3.3.2 Phase measurements 132
3.3.3 Rise time and delay measurements 134
4. SUMMARY 136
5. REFERENCES 136
5. THERMAL MONITORING OF IC'S 139
1. INTRODUCTION 139
2. OPTICAL METHODS 141
2.1 Contact methods 141
2.1.1 Liquid crystal thermography 141
2.1.1.1 Principle of operation 141
2.1.1.2 Technique performance 143
2.1.2 Fluorescent microthermography 144
2.1.2.1 Principle of operation 144
2.1.2.2 Technique performance 144
2.2 Non-contact methods 145
2.2.1 Infrared emission thermography 145
2.2.1.1 Principle of operation 146
2.2.1.2 Technique performance 147
2.2.2 Thermoreflectometers 148
2.2.3 Interferometers 154
3. MECHANICAL METHODS 158
4. BUILT-IN TEMPERATURE SENSORS 161
4.1 Absolute temperature sensors 162
4.2 Differential temperature sensors 169
5. CONCLUSIONS 179
6. REFERENCES 181
6. FEASmILITY ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 185
1. INTRODUCTION 185
2. FEASmILITY ASPECTS OF THE THERMAL TESTING OF
CIRCUITS 187
2.1 Cost estimation 187
2.2 Discriminability analysis 190
2.2.1Heat sources in fault-free circuits: generation of thermal
disturbances 190
2.2.2 Discriminability 195
2.2.3 Strategies to improve the feasibility of thermal testing 195
2.2.4 Generation of test vectors 196
3. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 198
4. REFERENCES 199
Contents ix
INDEX 201
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the researchers referenced throughout the
book for their valuable previous work. We are specially grateful to
Professors Wilfrid Claeys, Stefan Dilhaire, Stephane Grauby and all the
research team of the "Centre de Physique Moleculaire Optique et
Hertzienne" from the Universite Bordeaux I, France; Sebastian Volz from
the Laboratoire d'Etudes Thermiques, Ecole Nationale Superieur de
Mechanique et d' Aerotechnique, France; Jean Christophe Batsale, from the
Laboratoire d'Energetique et Phenomenes de Transfert - Universite
Bordeaux I, France; Hideo Tamamoto from the Department of fuformation
Engineering, Akita University, Japan; Joan Figueras and Rosa Rodriguez,
from the Electronic Engineering Department, Universitat Politecnica de
Catalunya, Spain; Jaume Segura from the Physics Department, Universitat
de les TIles Balears, Spain; Victor Champac from the INAOE, Mexico; and
Andre Ivanov, from the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department,
The University of British Columbia, Canada; with whom we have been
tightly working during the last years in this field. Weare also grateful to
Prof. P.E. Bagnoli, C. Casarosa, M. Ciampi, E. Dallago, V. Szekely, M.
Rencz, A. Poppe and B. Courtois for providing figures from their research
work.
Xl
Preface
Integrated circuits (IC's) have undergone a significant evolution in terms
of complexity and performance as a result 'of the substantial advances made
in manufacturing technology. Circuits, in their various mixed formats, can be
made up tens or even hundreds of millions of devices. They work at
extremely low voltages and switch at very high frequencies. Testing of
circuits has become an essential process in IC manufacturing, in the effort to
ensure that the manufactured components have the appropriate levels of
quality. Along with the ongoing trend towards more advanced technology
and circuit features, major testing challenges are continuously emerging. The
use of ambivalent procedures to test the analogue and digital sections of such
complex circuits without interfering in their nominal operation is clearly a
critical part of today's technological ipdustries. Chapter 1 presents the
general purposes and basic concepts rel~ted With' the"testing of integrated
circuits, discussing the various strategies and their limitations. Readers who
are already familiar with the field may opt to skip this chapter.
This book offers a multidisciplinary focus on thermal testing. This is a
testing method which is not only suitable for use in combination with other
existing techniques, but is also backed by a wealth of knowledge and offers
exciting opportunities in the form of as yet unexplored areas of research and
innovation for industrial applications. In short, thermal testing is that general
category of testing procedures in which the observable magnitude is the
temperature of a part or whole of the system. The technique can be applied
either to the packaging of the components, or directly to the components
themselves. This book will also deal with the testing of packaging and
silicon dies.
xiii