Theorising African States: The Case of Angola from a Critical Theory

115 Pages·2009·0.69 MB·English

Theorising African States:
The Case of Angola from a Critical Theory
Perspective
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Audun Solli

Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts (International Studies) at Stellenbosch University
Supervisor: Professor Anthony Leysens.
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Declaration

By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained
therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the
extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part
submitted it for obtaining any qualification.

Date: 17.02.2009
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Copyright © 2009 Stellenbosch University
All rights reserved
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Abstract.(cid:1)
This thesis is a theoretical contribution to the debate about statehood in Sub-Saharan Africa.
My primary aims have been to interrogate the use of the state concept on the continent, and to
open up new theoretical avenues to analyse the state. My starting point has been that the state
is a key to solving socio-economic challenges. Yet the social theory that purports to make
sense of the state in Africa is poor. Mainstream scholars use prefixes such as ‘failed’, ‘weak’
and ‘quasi’ to make sense of existing African states. If they call for such labels, it is only
because an unhelpful ideal type based on the ‘modern’ European state is postulated. Such
scholarship is limited to theorising the distance between the ideal type and real states. This
approach gives a functionalist account of the state’s relationship with society and economy,
but fails to explain the state as a historical product and expression of the distribution of power
between social groups. As an alternative way to theorise states, I propose a synthesis between
Robert W. Cox and Mahmood Mamdani. Combining Mamdani’s and Cox’s theoretical
frameworks avoids the problems that arise when Eurocentric International Relations (IR)
theories are applied to an African context. The synthesis adds to both frameworks by
addressing a shortcoming in Cox by paying more attention to power struggles in the
periphery, and redresses the exclusive focus on Africa in Mamdani. Adding Cox to Mamdani
contextualises Mamdani’s African state in space as well as time, whereas adding Mamdani to
Cox shows how African states respond to outside pressures and in the process (re)constitute
the world order by adding an inside-out pressure.
I use a single case study of the Angolan state to illustrate how a Coxian / Mamdanian
synthesis contributes to the debate. This theoretical framework turns the attention to four
aspects. First, there is a close historical link between the economic structure and the form of
the state in the country, from the slave trade to today’s political economy of oil. Second, I
look at the attempts of the Angolan state elite to legitimise its own power. I posit that in the
context of social destitution and poverty, strategies to sustain consent based rule assumes
particular importance. Third, the Angolan state is an expression of internal powers struggles
between social groups in the country. The contemporary balance of power is volatile: recent
economic growth has the potential of unsettling old power structures, as the relative balance
of who has access to economic power changes. Lastly, the world order supports the current
structure of power in Angola, largely thanks to the political economy of oil. Oil gives the
Angolan regime ample economic resources, as well as crucial support from oil companies and
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the states that import the oil. This foreign support underwrites the regime and constitutes an
important element in its support base.
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Opsomming.
Hierdie tesis is ‘n teoretiese bydra tot die debat oor die stand van state in Sub-Sahara Afrika.
Die primêre doel van die tesis is om die gebruik van die konsep “staat” ten opsigte van die
kontinent te bevraagteken en ‘n nuwe teoretiese denkrigting te open om die staat te analiseer.
Die uitgangspunt is dat die staat deurslaggewend is in die oplossing van sosio-ekonomiese
uitdagingings. Die bestaande sosiale teorie wat poog om sin te maak uit die staat van Afrika is
onvoldoende.
Hoofstroomse skoliere maak gebruik van terme soos ’gefaal’, ’swak’ en ’ kwasi’ om sin te
maak uit die bestaande Afrika state. Die gebruik van sulke stempels is bloot omdat ‘n
onondersteunende idealtipe, gebaseer op die moderne Europese state, gepostuleer word.
Hierdie denke is beperk in die sin dat dit slegs die afstand tussen die idealetipe en werklike
state aanspreek. Hierdie benadering gee ‘n funksionalistiese siening van die staat se
verhouding met die samelewing en die ekonomie, maar misluk daarin om die staat te
verduidelik as ‘n historiese produk en ‘n uitdrukking van die magsverdeling tussen sosiale
groepe. As ‘n alternatiewe manier om oor state te teoretiseer word ‘n kombinasie van Robert
W. Cox en Mahmood Mamdani voorgestel. Die kombinering van Mamdani en Cox se
teoretiese raamwerke omseil die probleem wat ontstaan wanneer Eurosentriese Internationale
Verhoudings toegepas word op ‘n Afrika konteks. Die kombinasie dra by tot beide raamwerke
deurdat dit tekortkominge in Cox aanspreek deur meer aandag te skenk aan die magstryde en
dit herbesin ook die ekslusiewe fokus op Afrika in Mandani se raamwerk. Deur Cox by
Mamdani te voeg kontektualiseer dit Mamdani se Afrika staat in ruimte asook in tyd, waar die
toevoeging van Mamdani tot Cox illustreer hoe Afrika state reageer op eksterne druk en in die
proses die wêreldorde herrangskik (hervorm) deur binne- na- buite druk toe te pas.
‘n Angolese gevallestudie word gebruik om te illustreer hoe ‘n Cox-Mamdani kombinasie
bydra tot hierdie debat. Die teoretiese raamwerk vestig die aandag op vier aspekte. Eerstens,
is daar ‘n noue historiese verband tussen die ekonomiese strukture van die vorm
(samestelling) van die staat in die land, vanaf die slawehandel tot vandag se politieke
ekonomie van olie. Tweedens word daar gekyk na pogings van die Angolese staat elite om
om sy eie magte legitiem te maak. Die argument word voorgestel dat in die konteks van sosio-
ekonomiese agteruitgang, word strategiëe om ‘n konsensus gebaseerde regering te behou van
kardinale belang. Derdens is die Angolese staat ‘n uitdrukking van interne magstryde tussen
sosiale groepe in die land. Laastens ondersteun die wêreldorde die huidige magstruktuur in
Angola, grootliks te danke aan die politieke ekonomie van olie. Olie verleen aan die Angolese
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regering voldoende ekonomiese hulpbronne, sowel as belangrike ondersteuning van
maatskappye en die state wat olie invoer. Hierdie buitelandse steun bevorder die Angolese
regering en vorm ‘n belangrike komponent in sy ondersteuningsbasis.
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Acknowledgments.
First of all, I wish to thank my supervisor Anthony Leysens for his assistance and insightful
comments throughout the production of this thesis. He gave me much of the initial inspiration
to engage with Coxian theory, and I have benefited immensely from working with him. He
has also graciously provided me with proofreading assistance.

The Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund made my studies in South Africa financially
possible. Lise and Arnfinn Hejes Fund also contributed with a stipend in December 2007. I
thank both funds for their support.

A number of people have been involved in this thesis. I wrote a project outline in July 2007,
and benefited from the feedback of Mona Østby, Matti James Erpestad, Hilde Solli in addition
Anthony Leysens. The bulk of the thesis itself was written while I was on a stipend at the
Norwegian Institute of Foreign Affairs (NUPI). I thank the Institute for much needed financial
assistance and for offering an accommodating and welcoming working environment. Several
NUPI researchers have commented on earlier drafts of the thesis, and I extend my
appreciation to Stein Sundstøl Eriksen and Øyvind Eggen of the Department of Development
Studies and Jens Chr. Andvig of the Department of International Economics. They all took
time off their busy schedules to give me helpful feedback, and helped me see the material
from different angles.

Elements of chapter one was used for a paper for Chrissie Steenkamp’s class on research
methodology, and I have benefited from the weaknesses she pointed out then. A preliminary
version of chapter four was presented at a special session of Janis van der Westhuizen’s class
“Theories of International Relations” at the University of Stellenbosch. I wish to thank Janis
van der Westhuizen, Karen Smith, Timothy Shaw, Jane Parpart, Tshepo Mvulane, Christian
Youla, Nicole Sarmiento, Øystein Nedrebø, and Mads U. Hansen for useful comments. A re-
worked version was then presented to the Department of Development Studies at NUPI, and I
benefited from the comments from Øyvind Eggen, Axel Borchgrevink, Anita Haslie, Olav
Stokke, Torild Skard and Jon Harald Sande Lie.

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An especially warm thank you goes to my close friend Alexandra W. Douglas who took time
off from lobbying the US Congress to adopt a more progressive immigration policy to
proofread and critically comment on the entire thesis.
Håvard Nilsen also provided me with some last-minute guidance and proofreading. Mari
Martinsen printed the final version for me in Stellenbosch, since I was out of the country. A
warm thank you goes to both of them.
Last but not least, a big baaie dankie goes to Meryl Awkes for translating the abstract into
Afrikaans. The world would have been poorer without helpful souls such as Meryl.
The usual caveats apply.

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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................III
OPSOMMING.....................................................................................................................V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................VII
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................................XI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................................XII
CHAPTER ONE. MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY.........................................................1
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1
Aim of thesis...................................................................................................................2
WHY ANALYSE STATES IN AFRICA?.....................................................................................4
The Role of the State in Development..............................................................................5
Important for Whom? A note on State Centrism..............................................................6
THEORISING STATES............................................................................................................9
Coxian Critical Theory (CCT): a Solution?...................................................................10
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY............................................................................12
A Case of What? Case Studies and Theory Development...............................................12
The Case of Angola.......................................................................................................16
LIMITS OF THE STUDY........................................................................................................18
CHAPTER TWO. FAILING STATES IN A FAILED CONTINENT: THE NEO-
WEBERIAN APPROACH.................................................................................................19
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................19
THE IDEAL TYPICAL METHOD............................................................................................20
MAIN ARGUMENT..............................................................................................................21
Describing the Crisis....................................................................................................21
Explaining the Crisis....................................................................................................23
CONCEPTUAL TOOLS.........................................................................................................27
The neo-Weberian African State....................................................................................27
Imagining Power..........................................................................................................30
CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER THREE. SEEING THE AFRICAN STATE FROM ELSEWHERE: THE
HISTORICIST APPROACH.............................................................................................34
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................34
THE HISTORICIST METHOD................................................................................................35
MAIN ARGUMENT..............................................................................................................37
Evoking the Postcolonial...............................................................................................37
The Politics of the Belly, the Bifurcated State and Fractionated Sovereignty.................39
STATES AND POWER OR THE POWER OF THE STATE.............................................................43
CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................44
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CHAPTER FOUR. KEEPING THE PROMISE OF CRITICAL THEORY: TOWARDS
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING AFRICAN STATE / SOCIETY
COMPLEXES.....................................................................................................................47
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................47
MAIN ARGUMENT OF CCT: A CRITICAL APPROACH TO WORLD ORDER...............................48
The Method of Historical Structures.............................................................................49
Four Coxian Concepts..................................................................................................50
The Promise of Critical Theory for Africa, Partially Kept.............................................56
ENTER MAMDANI..............................................................................................................58
SYNTHESISING MAMDANI AND COX: CONTOURS OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.............59
Synthesis as convergence..............................................................................................59
Synthesis as a way to Address Shortcomings.................................................................61
CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................62
CHAPTER FIVE. THE VOLATILE BALANCE: SUSTAINING HEGEMONY IN
ANGOLA............................................................................................................................65
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................65
ANGOLA’S POLITICAL ECONOMY.......................................................................................66
THE ANGOLAN STATE FORM..............................................................................................69
(RE)CONCEPTUALISING THE ANGOLAN STATE....................................................................75
Hegemonic Strategies in a Context of Social Destitution...............................................77
RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES...........................................................................................82
CONCLUSION: BALANCING A VOLATILE POWER STRUCTURE..............................................84
CHAPTER SIX. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................86
NEO-WEBERIANS AND HISTORICISTS: ROOM FOR COMMON GROUND?................................89
UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL POLITICAL ECONOMY; UNDERSTANDING ANGOLA..............90
CONCLUDING REMARKS....................................................................................................93
BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................................................................96

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