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Boston Public Library
REFERENCE
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Volume
21
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ISBN0-7166-0103-6
LibraryofCongressControlNumber2002068987
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
03 54321
Ww
w
1
W
isthe23rd letterofouralphabet.The letterdevel- in English. 14^isusedtoabbreviate west. In militaryti-
opedfromasymbol used bythe Semites,whoonce tles, H/often standsforwomenorwomen's,as in WAC
lived in Syriaand Palestine.Theynamed itwaw, mean- for Women'sArmyWCorps. In electricity, H'is usedfor
inghook, and adaptedan Egyptianhieroglyphic(picture watt. In chemistry isthesymbolfortheelementtung-
symbol).The Romans,whotookitfromtheGreeks,gave sten.
itaVshape.Theyfirstpronounced itaswe pronounce Pronunciation. In English, w\spronounced by
w,butlaterpronounced itas v. Duringthe lOOO's, roundingthe lipsand raisingthetonguetowardthe
French scribesdoubledthe v,as w, in ordertowritethe velum,orsoftpalate,in preparationforavowel sound
Anglo Saxon letterwWen,forwhichtheyhad no letterin tofollow.Thevelum isclosed,andthevocal cordsvi-
theiralphabet.The wasalsowritten inarounded brate. W\ssilentinwordssuchas wrongandanswer It
formas UU.Itlatercameto becalled"doubleU"in Eng- rarelyoccurs in Scandinavian languagesorin French
lish.SeeAlphabet. and otherRomancelanguages,exceptforafewwords
Uses. l4^orwisaboutthe 19th mostfrequentlyused from othertongues. InGerman,itusuallyhasthesound
letterin books, newspapers,and otherprinted material ofV.SeePronunciation. MarianneCooley
DevelopmentoftheletterW ThWesmallletterwcameintousealongwiththecapital
duringthe1OOffs.Bythe1500's,thesmallletterhadde-
velopeditspresentshape.
TheancientEgyptiansdrewthissym- w
Y
bolofasupportingpoleabout3000B.C
TheSemitesadaptedthesymboland
nameditwaw,theirwordforhooli.
1000 Today
Y
ThePhoeniciansusedthissymbolofa
hookintheiralphabetabout1000B.C.
W
Specialwaysofexpressingtheletter
T
TheGreel(schangedthesymboland
addedittotheiralphabetabout600B.C.
Theycalledtheirletterupsilon.
International
MorseCode Braille
V
TheRomansgavetheletterVitsca|
W shapeaboutA.D.114. H
W
MedievalscWribesused asaletter
about1000. wasalsowrittenUU,and
theletterbecameknownas"doubleU."
international SemaphoreCode SignLanguage
FlagCode Alphabet
WComwmo!nfo^rmsoftheletteWrW w Ww Ww Ww W
Handwrittenlettersvary Romanlettershavesmall Sans-seriflettersarealso Computerlettershavespe-
frompersontoperson.Manu- finishingstrokescalledserifs calledgotiiicletters.They cialshapes.Computerscan
script[printed]letters,left, thatextendfromthemain havenoserifs.Thetypeface "read"theseletterseitheropti-
havesimplecurvesand strokes.Thetypefaceshown shownaboveiscalledFutura. callyorbymeansofthemag-
straightlines.Cursiveletters, aboveisBaskerville.1heitalic TheitalicformofFuturaap- neticinkwithwhichthelet-
rigiit,haveflowinglines. formappearsattheright. pearsattheright. tersmaybeprinted.
"
2 WabashRiver
WabashRiver, WAWbash,isthebest-known riverin sameyear,settlerShapleyP. Rossestablished aferry
Indiana. Itis475 miles(764 kilometers) long.TheWabash serviceacrossthe Breizos River.TheferrymadeWacoan
rises in western Ohioand flows northwestinto Indiana. importantgatewaytotheWest.Construction ofasus-
Itturns nearHuntington and flowswestand southwest pension bridgeoverthe Brazos in 1870andthearrival of
until itjoinstheOhio Riverinthe southwestern corner the railroad in 1871 encouragedthecity's growth.Waco
ofIndiana.TheWabash forms partofthe boundarybe- istheseatofMcLennan Countyand hasacouncil-man-
tween Indianaand Illinois(see Indiana[physical map)). agerform ofgovernment. In 1993,a51-daystand-off
TheWabash and its branches drain mostofIndianaand tookplace betweenfederal lawenforcementagentsand
alargeareaofIllinois.The riveris mentioned in several acultcalledthe Branch Davidiansatthecult's com-
songs, including Indiana's statesong,"Onthe Banksof pound nearWaco(see Reno,Janet). BarbaraElmore
theWabash, FarAway. Wagerisabet,oranything which is risked ontheout-
Indians usedtheWabashasatransportation routeas come ofan eventortheanswertoaquestion.Moneyor
earlyasthe 1300's.Bythe 1700's,theWabashwasan im- otherpropertymaybewagered,oritmaybeagreed
portanttransportation routeforFrenchtradersand colo- thatthe loserofthe betshall doacertainthing.Laws do
nial settlers. Inthe 1850's,a newrailroad system linked notenforcethe paymentofwagers, exceptin certain
the majorcitiesalongtheWabash,and rivertransporta- countriesand stateswherethatkind ofgambling is law-
tion declined. MichaelE.Sullivan ful. DwightChuman
Waco, WAYkoh(pop. 113,726;met.area pop.213,517), Seealso Gambling;Lottery.
isacityin centralTexas. Itlies onthe Brazos River,about Wagesandhours.Wagesarethe price paidfor
100miles(160kilometers)south ofDallas. Forlocation, work.Theyare usuallyfigured bythe hourorbythe
seeTexas(political map). week.
Waco's industries includecandymanufacturingand Wagesarethe main source ofincomeformostpeo-
systems modificationand modernizationformilitaryand ple inthe United States.Wages maybeclassified as
commercial aircraft.The surrounding area produces moneywagesand realwages.Moneywagesaretheac-
cotton,dairyfoods,grains, hay, livestock, poultry,and tual amountofmoneyaworkerreceivesfroman em-
vegetables.Waco isthe home ofBaylorUniversity,the ployer. Realwages representtheamountofgoodsand
largestBaptistuniversityintheworld. servicesworkerscan buywiththeirmoneywages.The
Wacowasfounded in 1849onthe site ofadeserted pricesofgoodsand services maychangesharplyover
Waco Indianvillageand was namedforthattribe.That time.Asaresult,economists mustcompare realwages
to determine howtheabilityofworkersto buychanges.
Suchcomparisonsadjustforchanging prices.
Real-wagecomparisonsareespeciallyimportantover
long periodsoftime. During such periods, money
wages mayincreasesharplyeventhough realwages
mayincrease littleoreven decline.Forexample,from
1985to 1995, moneywages increased by33 percent
while real wagesactuallydeclined byabout5 percent.
Thus,workerscould buymoregoodsand serviceswith
theiraverageweeklywages in 1985than in 1995.
Thegrowth ofrealwages overtime is much more im-
portantthanthegrowth ofmoneywages because real-
wage levels determinethe purchasing powerofwork-
ers.Amain contributingfactorinthegrowth ofreal
wagesovertime isgrowth in productivity.When more
goodsand servicesare produced withoutan increase in
thecostofproduction, pricesstaylow,andwages can
buymore.Thegrowth in productivityis measured by
theworkers'average outputperworker-hour.Output
perworker-hourmeasurestheamountofgoodsand
servicesanaverageworkerproduces in one hour.Out-
putperworker-hourincreasesasworkers become
more skilled,and as machinery,tools,andfactories be-
come more efficient.
From 1909to 1950,outputperworker-hourinthe
United States roseanaverageof2 percentannually.
From 1950to 1969, itincreased atanaverageannual rate
of2.8 percent. However,from 1969to 1989,the growth
slowedtoan average rate of1 percentyearly. In 1980,
1982, 1989,and 1990,workerproductivityactuallyde-
clined.Since 1990,averageworkerproductivityper
hourhas risenan averageofabout2 percentayear.
BaylorUniversity Sincethe 1940's,employers havespentan increasing
BaylorUniversit/smaincampusislocatedinWaco.PatNeff percentage oftheirlaborcosts on fringebenefits,rather
Hallhousestheuniversity'sadministrativeoffices. than take-homepayiortheworker.The mostpopular
Wagner,Honus 3
WagesandhoursintheUnitedStates
Averageweeklygrosswages(beforesocialsecurityandincometaxdeductions)haveincreasedgreatly
since1940.Factoringoutinflationbyshowingwagesinconstantdollarsrevealsthatwagespeakedinthe
1970's,thenleveledoff.Averageweeklyworkinghoursfellatthebeginningofthe1900s,increasedduring
WorldWarII,thenstabilizedatabout40hoursperweek.Figuresapplyonlytoproductionworkersin
manufacturingindustries,abenchmarkformeasuringchangesinwagesandhours.
Averageweeklywages Averageweeklyhours
Currentdollars
Dollarsperweek Constantdollars(1982) Hoursperweek
700 60
1909:51.0
50
2001:$603.99 2001:40.7
600 40
30
500 20
10
400
2001:$337.24 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
300 Averageweeklywages
Year Currentdollars Constantdollars(1982)
1940 $ 24.96 $170.96
1945 44.20 236.36
200 1950 58.32 233.12
1955 75.70 270.86
1960 89.72 291.30
1965 107.53 328.84
100 1970 133.33 331.67
1975 190.79 341.92
1980 288.62 337.17
1985 386.37 350.29
194a$24.96 1990 441.86 331.98
1992 469.86 329.50
1940 1960 1980 2020 1995 514.59 332.85
1998 562.53 341.34
2001 603.99 33724
Source:U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics.
fringebenefits include pension plans,medical and den- quired numberofhours perweek.Mostflextimesys-
tal insurance, paid holidays,and paid sicktime.Employ- tems requireall employeesto be presentduring aperi-
ers usuallyconsiderbenefitsasasubstituteforwages, od calledthe coretlOUrS. PaulLBurgess
ratherthanasanadditional contributiontotheworkers. Relatedarticlesin WorldBool<\nc\u6e:
Hours.Beforethe Industrial Revolution, mostpeople Childlabor Minimumwage
worked onfarmswheretheworkdayranfrom sunrise Costofliving Profitsharing
to sunset. Factoryoperatorstriedto enforcethe same LLaabboorr,mDoevpearmtemnetntof Unemploymentinsurance
hoursduringthe Industrial Revolutionofthe 1700'sand
early1800's, despitethe difference inworking condi- Wagner^ WAGnuhr,
tionsandthetype ofwork.Gradually,the 10-hourday Honus, HOHnuhs{\874-
andthe6-dayweekbecamethe normalworking period 1955), isoften considered
in U.S.and Europeanfactories. baseball'sgreatestshort-
Laborbegan itsdemandsforan 8-hourdayinthe stop.Wagnerplayedfor
mid-1800's. Butthe8-hourdaydid notbecomecommon the Pittsburgh Piratesfrom
intheUnited States until afterWorld WarI. Duringthe 1900to 1917.He ledthe
1930's,the5-day,40-hourworkweekcame intogeneral National League in batting
practice inthe United States.This practicehaschanged eightyears, includingfour
littlethroughtheyears.Bythe early1980's,theaverage seasons inarow.He bat-
workweekwas35hours. Flexibleworkscheduling, ted .300orhigherina
called flextimeor flexitime,began inWestGermanyin league record 17consecu-
1967and spreadtotheUnited Statesduringthe 1970's. tiveseasons.His lifetime
Flextimeworkers maychoosetheirown dailywork batting averagewas.329.
hours,withincertain limits,as longastheyworkthe re- Wagnerled the league HonusWagner
4 Wagner, Richard
ill stolen basesfivetimes.Wagnerholdsthe National in an unsuccessful revolu-
League record formosttripleswith 252. Healso ranks tion in 1849.Awarrantwas
second in majorleague putouts bya shortstop. issued forhisarrestand he
Wagnerwas born in Mansfield (nowCarnegie), Pa. fled to Switzerland. Hewas
Hisgivenand familynamewas John PeterWagner. He notallowed to returnto
was called Honus, a nickname\orJohannes, the German Germanyfor 12years.
form ofJohn.Wagnerbegan his majorleaguecareer Latercareer. During
withthe Louisville Colonels in 1897. Hewaselected to hisfirstyears in Switzer-
the National Baseball Hall ofFame in 1936. lackLang land,Wagnerwrote no
Wagner, VAHCnuhr, Richard(1813-1883),wasa music. Instead, he exam-
greatGerman composerwho fundamentallychanged ined his own philosophyof
European musical, literary,and theatrical life.Wagner artand lifeand wrote on
believedthatthetheatershould bethe centerofacom- social, religious,and artis-
munity's culture ratherthan merelya place ofentertain- tic problems. Healso RichardWagner
ment. Hefinallybuilt his own theaterand founded Eu- beganto expandthe li-
rope'soldestsummermusicfestival.He intended this brettoforhis greatestcreation. TheRingoftheNibe-
festival and the ideal conditions itofferedto performing lung. He began workonthe musicforthis cycleoffour
artiststo serveasa modelforothertheaters. operas in 1853. Hefinished TheRhineCold(DasRhein-
Wagnerwrote hisown operalibrettos(texts), basing gold) in 1854, The Valkyrie(Die Walkure) in 1856,and
his matureworks on episodesfrom historyand from thefirsttwoactsofSiegfriedby 1857.Then hecom-
medieval mythsand legends. Inthe musicofhis earlier posed anotherwork he had been planning, Tristanand
works, he used elements ofthe German, French,and Isolde. He did notcomposethethird actoiSiegfried
Italian operaticstyles ofhistime. He reached aclimaxin until 1869.
Lohengrin, which broughtthese diverseelementsto in- Tristan, completed by 1859, isa landmarkin music
tense,expressive unity.AfterLohengrin, Wagnerdevel- becauseofthe intenselychromaticstylewhich reflects
oped a newmusical language.Composers like Mozart theambiguityinthe relationship between Tristan and
tendedtocomposeoperasthatwere divided intoase- Isolde.This stylegreatlyincreasedthe expressive nature
ries ofseparate musical pieces or"numbers."Wagner ofWagner's melodiesand harmonies. Tristanisa
movedtoafreerchain ofmanymelodic ideas(called unique conceptionforthe stage. Itdeals lesswith exter-
motives)and keys, using newwaysto blend them into nal events oractionsthanwiththe powerful emotional
thevastdimensionsofhis musical dramas. livesofthe characters,whatWagnercalled an "interior
Earlycareer.Wagnerwas born in Leipzig on May drama."
22, 1813. Earlyin life, heshowed aflairforthetheater Getting Tristanproduced wasWagner'schiefconcern
and mighthave becomeagreatactorifhe had notde- after1859. Tannhauser, in a revised version,was per-
cidedto becomea musician. From 1833to 1839, hewas formed unsuccessfullyin Paris in 1861. Debts piled up,
an operaconductorin German cities. Hewrote hisfirst and he constantlyfacedfinancial ruin. In 1864, King Lud-
completeopera. TheFairies(1834), intheGerman ro- wig II ofBavariacameto his rescue.Wagnerbecame
manticstyle. Heabandonedthisstyle in his nextopera, the kingsadviserin Munich,and Tristanwas produced
TheBanonLove(1835), based on Shakespeare'sMeas- there in 1865. Meanwhile,Wagnerhad startedworkon
ureforMeasure. In 1836, he married Minna Planer,an his onlymature comedy. TheMastersingersofNurem-
actress. Itwasastormymarriageandtheylived apartin berg(DieMeistersingervonNurnberg). Hefinished itin
the lastyears before herdeath in 1866. Switzerland in 1867. In 1874, he concludedtheentire
Wagner's nextprojectwasRienzi, an opera inthe im- Ringcyclewiththe completion of The Twilightofthe
posing style called Frenchgrand opera. He interrupted Gods(DieCotterdammerung).About 1864,Wagnerfell
hisworkon RienziAhevhearing a performanceofBee- in lovewith Cosimavon Bijiow,the married daughterof
thoven's ninth symphonyin Paris in 1839.This renewed composerFranzLiszt. Cosima became his mistress,and
hisfaith in German musicand inspired hisfirstmaster- theywere married in 1870.
piece,AFaustOverturefororchestra(1840).Wagnerno Wagner's music madea greatimpression on King
longerhad completefaith inRienzi. Buthe completed it Ludwig's romantic imagination.The composerusedthe
anyway, becausea successful production in Pariswould king'sadmirationforhisworktofurtherhis own ambi-
ensure his reputationasan opera composerall overEu- tions.Withthe king'said,Wagnerbuiltatheaterin Bay-
rope.The operawas notproduced, however,and Wag- reuth in whichto performtheRing. Thefirstfestivalwas
nerran outofmoney. In 1841, hefinished TheFlying heldthere in 1876. He composed his lastwork,the
Dutchman, returningtotheGerman romanticstyle. It operaParsifal{\^^1],to be performed inthistheater.
was first performed in 1843. Wagner's philosophy.Wagnertriedtofind a new
Hisfortunes revived in 1842withan offerto conduct wayofcombining music and drama in thetheater. He
RienziA{the Dresden opera house. In Dresden,Wagner believedthe basic errorin operawasthatmusic had be-
composed Tannhauseri^MS)and Lohengrin(1848),two comethe sole end. Drama served merelyasan excuse
greattreatmentsofthe romanticviewofmedieval chiv- formusical display.Wagneraimed atawork inwhich all
alry. thevarious elements in operatic composition were in
Meanwhile, social revolution brewed in Germany. perfectharmonyand directedtoward asingleartistic
Wagnerwasconvincedthatmusiciansweretreated un- end.
justlyand thattheorganization and operationofthethe- Wagnerconsideredtheorchestrathegreatestartistic
aterswere poor. His resentment ledto his participation• achievementofhistime,and wantedtotakegreaterad-
