The Use and Development of the Xinkan Languages

279 Pages·2016·3.665 MB·

by  Chris Rogers

The Use
and Development
of the Xinkan Languages
Published through the Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas
initiative, supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation

The Use
and Development
of the Xinkan Languages
Chris Rogers
University of Texas Press : Austin
This book is a part of the Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas
publication initiative, funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.
Copyright © 2016 by the University of Texas Press
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First edition, 2016
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♾ The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements
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Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
Rogers, Chris, 1977– author.
 The use and development of the Xinkan languages / Chris Rogers. — First edition.
  pages cm — (Recovering languages and literacies of the Americas Mellon
Foundation Initiative)
 Includes bibliographical references and index.
 ISBN 978- 1- 4773- 0831- 8 (cloth)
 ISBN 978- 1- 4773- 0832- 5 (pbk.)
 ISBN 978- 1- 4773- 0833- 2 (library e- book)
 ISBN 978- 1- 4773- 0834- 9 (non- library e- book)
1. Xinca language—Grammar, Historical. 2. Extinct languages—Guatemala. 
3. Indians of South America—Guatemala—Languages. 4. Guatemala—Languages.
I. Title. II. Series: Recovering languages and literacies of the Americas.
 PM4498.X31R64 2016
 497′.9—dc23
2015030234
This grammar is dedicated to the Xinkan community of Guatemala
and especially to the last speakers of these languages
and those involved in efforts toward language revitalization.
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Contents
List of figures and tables • xi
Acknowledgements • xiii
List of abbreviations • xv
Chapter 1. Introduction to the languages and their speakers • 3
1.1 The Xinkan linguistic context • 3
1.2 Past work with the Xinkan languages • 6
1.3 The Xinkan social and cultural contexts • 9
1.4 Organization of the grammar • 13
1.4.1 Description of data sources • 13
PART 1. T HE USE OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES:
SYNCHRONIC GRAMMAR
Chapter 2. Phonology • 19
2.1 Vowels • 19
2.1.1 Vowel length • 20
2.1.2 Vowel harmony • 26
2.2 Consonants • 31
2.2.1 Guazacapán • 31
2.2.2 Chiquimulilla • 33
2.2.3 Jumaytepeque • 33
2.2.4 Yupiltepeque • 33
2.2.5 Consonant distribution • 35
2.3 Phonological alternations • 42
2.3.1 Glottalization • 42
2.3.2 Voicing of stop following a nasal • 49
2.3.3 Nasal assimilation • 51
2.3.4 Lenition to [h] • 51
2.3.5 Vowel raising • 52
2.3.6 Glottal- stop epenthesis • 53
viii • Contents
2.3.7 Consonant dissimilation • 54
2.3.8 Guazacapán consonant deletion • 55
2.4 Syllable structure • 56
2.5 Stress • 57
2.6 Orthography • 57
Chapter 3. Morphology • 59
3.1 Nouns • 59
3.1.1 Possession • 61
3.1.2 Number • 67
3.1.3 Diminutive constructions • 69
3.2 Adjectives • 70
3.2.1 Adjectives as modifiers of nouns • 70
3.2.2 Adjectives modified by ki ‘very’ • 72
3.2.3 Comparative and superlative constructions • 73
3.3 Determiners • 74
3.3.1 Articles • 74
3.3.2 Demonstratives • 75
3.3.3 Quantifiers • 77
3.4 Noun Phrases • 80
3.5 Pronouns • 81
3.5.1 Independent personal pronouns • 81
3.5.2 Dependent pronouns • 83
3.6 Verbs • 87
3.6.1 Verb classes and transitivity • 88
3.6.2 Subject agreement • 94
3.6.3 Grammatical aspect • 95
3.6.4 Imperative form • 97
3.6.5 Contrastive construction in Guazacapán • 99
3.6.6 Tense • 100
3.6.7 Grammatical voice • 102
3.6.8 Mood and modality • 103
3.7 Relational nouns • 104
3.8 Verbal particles • 106
3.8.1 pʼe/pʼeh directional particle • 106
3.8.2 wa optative particle • 108
3.8.3 Negative imperative particle in Guazacapán • 108
3.8.4 Verbs borrowed from Spanish • 108
3.9 Nominal particles • 109
3.9.1 kumu ‘as’ • 109
3.9.2 tiʼi-/ tʼi- direct object • 110
3.9.3 ʼi- reflexive in Guazacapán • 111
3.9.4 kiʼ • 111
Contents • ix
3.9.5 kiki- /kih • 111
3.10 Question words • 112
3.11 Conjunctions • 113
3.12 Derivational morphology • 113
3.12.1 Noun derivations • 113
3.12.2 Adjective derivations • 116
3.12.3 Verbal derivation • 118
Chapter 4. Syntax • 135
4.1 Syntactic alignment • 136
4.1.1 Grammatical relations • 136
4.1.2 Semantic relations • 139
4.1.3 Antipassive and verb agreement • 139
4.2 Simple sentence formation • 140
4.2.1 Sentences with verbs • 140
4.2.2 Copular sentences • 144
4.3 Question formation • 152
4.3.1 Yes/no questions • 152
4.3.2 Content questions (wh- questions) • 154
4.4 Preposing • 155
4.5 Negation • 156
4.6 Complex sentence formation • 158
4.6.1 Conjoined clauses • 158
4.6.2 Serial verb constructions • 160
4.6.3 Relative clauses • 162
4.6.4 Complement clauses • 163
4.6.5 Adverbial clauses • 164
4.6.6 Conditional clauses • 165
Chapter 5. Na Mulha Uy • 167
5.1 Text • 168
PART 2. T HE DEVELOPMENT OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES:
DIACHRONIC GRAMMAR
Chapter 6. Historical phonology • 187
6.1 Introduction • 187
6.2 Commentary on the reconstruction of Proto- Xinkan • 188
6.3 Proto- Xinkan phonological reconstruction • 192
6.3.1 Consonants • 194
6.3.2 Vowel changes • 203
6.4 Summary of sound changes • 205