Table Of ContentTheses and Papers in Osteoarchaeology No. 2
Stockholm University
The Urba n Fa r mer
o A S
steoarchaeological nalysis of keletons
from Medieval Sigtuna Interpreted In
a Socioeconomic Perspective
anna kjellström
Stockholm 2005
Revised 2014
Doctoral Dissertation 2005, Revised 2014
Osteoarchaeological Research laboratory
Department of Archaeology and Classical Studies
Stockholm University
SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Anna Kjellström. The Urban Farmer. ������ee��aarr����aaee������������aa�� ��nnaa���������� ������ ����ee��ee����nn�� ����rr��mm
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Theses and Papers in Osteoarchaeology No. 2, Stockholm University. 2005.
KEY W�RD�: urbanization; health index; Middle Ages; sex distribution; age distribution; dietary patterns
�b��ra��:
At the end of the 10th century the first Swedish town Sigtuna was founded, which can be recognized as
the beginning of urbanization in the Mälaren valley. Christianity was growing strong and the administrative
power was probably concentrated to a few magnates gathered around a king. Though, Sigtuna played an
important religious and political role, the time of prosperity was short and at the end of the 13th-early 14th
century the importance of the town declined. The ambition with the present thesis has been to investigate the
demography of the human skeletal material excavated in Sigtuna during the period 1983-1999. The skeletons
from 528 individuals from six cemeteries dated to the end of 10th century to the early 16th century have been
analysed. The material was subdivided into three chronological development phases synonymous with the
establishment, the peak of prosperity and the decline of the town. Well-recognized anthropological techniques
were applied together with a health index and chemical tests such as stable isotopes and trace elements. The
main aims were to investigate: 1) differences in the material between contemporary inhabitants in Sigtuna, 2)
differences in the material between the different chronological phases, 3) differences between the osteological
results achieved from Sigtuna and results from other skeletal materials and 4) if the results can be connected
to the indications of urbanization. The results showed that:
- Some differences between contemporary cemeteries are discernable. Variations in stable isotopes suggest
dietary differences between the women at different cemeteries. Furthermore, differences in age- and sex
distribution, and mean stature are discernable between some of the contemporary samples and even within a
cemetery. The discrepancies may be related to prevailing social structures in Sigtuna.
- A decline in health through time is demonstrated. The negative trend is particularly marked for women. In
addition demographic changes suggest an increased migration of adults to Sigtuna. The health deterioration
may be connected to e.g. increased population density and an increased risk of infections.
- In comparison with other materials the anthropological results, including the health index, suggests that
the inhabitants in Sigtuna showed an urban pattern and that the quality of life, at least in the initial phase,
was relatively good.
- The sex distribution shows a generally male dominance possibly caused by selective excavations except at
the oldest site without an adherent church. The uneven sex distribution may, alternatively, be a result of the
urban character of Sigtuna i.e. a Christian and political administrative centre.
The osteological results are in line with the archaeological and historical data. It is suggested that the
consequences of urbanization such as immigration, deterioration of health and social ranking, implied by
several osteological parameters and the chemical analysis, acted differently through the gender lines.
© 2005,2014 Anna Kjellström
ISSN 1652-4090
ISBN 91-7155-098-4; 1-136
Ljungbergs Tryckeri AB, Klippan 2005
Cover illustration: Gravestone from St Mary’s, Sigtuna, in memory of Nils Jonsson, his wife Kristina and
daughter Kristern in A.D. 1310. By Samuel Raitio, based on a drawing from Gihl (1925).
Illustrations in Chapter 5 ffrroomm ��MMeeedddeeellltttiiidddeeennnsss AAABBBCCC������ (((111999888555))) wwwiiittthhh pppeeerrrmmmiiissssssiiiooonnn fffrrrooommm ttthhheee eeedddiiitttooorrr (((UUUnnnllleeessssss ooottthhheeerrr
stated).
Layout by Samuel Raitio
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During the years of both practical datings, stable isotopes and trace elements.
and theoretical work on the Sigtuna Furthermore, I am most grateful to all
material, many people have been of great the other postgraduate students at the
assistance. First and foremost I would Osteoarchaeological Research Laboratory –
like to thank my supervisor, Professor Carola Libe-Harkort, Petra Molnar, Carina
Ebba During at the Osteoarchaeological Olson and Gustav Malmborg. Through
Research Laboratory, for her enthusiasm, earth, wind and fire we have struggled
constant encouragement and confidence along, constantly discussing intriguing
in my research. She has in addition to osteological issues, lack of financial support
her role as a professor and director of the and the latest TV programme. For many
laboratory supervised my work both gently years, Sabine Sten, at the University College
and firmly. I am also greatly indebted to of Gotland, was part of the same team and
my assistant supervisor, Jan Storå, for his before that my boss at the Museum of
inspiring discussions and collaboration. National Antiquities. I would like to thank
His forceful but friendly advice made her for her constant encouragement and
this thesis half as long but considerably many laughs. Sabine immediately offered
better. My research would naturally not me a considerable amount of osteological
have been possible without excellent access data from a previous study, for which I
to the archaeological documentation at also thank her co-workers Lars Werdelin
Sigtuna Museum. The Director of the and Janken Myrdal. In addition, I am
Museum, Sten Tesch, also my assistant most grateful to Professor Rick Steckel
supervisor, read my work in detail, offering at Ohio State University for providing
constructive criticism and suggestions. The access to the software package used for
archaeologist Anders Wikström gathered the Western Hemisphere Project. I would
and summarized all available information also like to express my gratitude to Hans
about the archaeological context of the and Christina Lundberg for all their help,
town. Furthermore, he made a meticulous the fruitful discussions on sharp force
stratigraphic analysis of the total trauma, brilliant photographs and excellent
excavation material, which was essential dinners. For proofreading of some of the
for the subdivision of the graves into the texts I thank Mia Wikström and Siv Storå.
chronological phases. Another of my co- I further wish to thank Leena Drenzel
authors, Professor Göran Possnert at the at the Museum of National Antiquities
Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University, for access to the Sigtuna material and
offered interesting discussions and was of Bent Syse at Upplands Museum for access
tremendous help when dealing with carbon to the osteological material from the Battle
iii
of Good Friday. I am also grateful to and domestic. Without his support I would
Marita Pilestad and Lisa Hellsing at the not have finished this thesis. I am also
Archaeological Department, Stockholm grateful to the second love of my life, my
University, for their help with a variety daughter Liv, for reminding me that you
of administrative issues and to Torun can never ask the question �Why?�� too
Zachrisson, Johan Runer and Nanouschka often. And to my unborn baby, I wish to
Myrberg and many other colleagues at the say simply, �Take your time, I have time to
same department for their comments and spare now��.
suggestions. In addition, I am grateful to
Professor Kerstin Lidén, Lena Holmquist Stockholm, June 2005
Olausson, Kjell Persson and Charlotte Anna Kjellström
Hedenstierna Jonson at the Archaeological
Research Laboratory for recommending
articles and comments. I would further
like to thank Jonas Nilsson at Trial Form
Support who with me performed most
of the statistical analysis and showed
great patience with my many questions.
Other osteological and archaeological
colleagues, including Berit Sigvallius,
Maria Vretemark, Caroline Arcini, Ylva
Bäckström, Kerstin Fogelberg, Sofia Prata
and Mats Petterson, have all contributed
different types of work-related assistance
and encouragement over the course of my
study, for which I am very grateful.
I would like to thank the many provincial
museums for their friendly and informative
answers to my requests for reference
materials. To my wonderful good friends I have received generous financial
– Jenny, Anna-Fia, Gofi, Natalie, Signe, support from the following sources:
Victoria, Trine, Kerstin, Sofia, Frida and Magnus Bergvalls Stiftelse, Berit
Anna – for offering dinners, parties, walks, Wallenbergs Stiftelse, Lars Hiertas
annual autumn weekends, shoulders to cry Minnesfond, Birgit och Gad Rausings
on, and much more – thank you! I only Stiftelse, K & A Wallenbergs Stiftelse,
hope I can show you the same kind of Medicinhistoriska Museets Vänförening,
support. I would also like to thank my dear the European Paleopathology Association,
parents for hours of babysitting, dinners Svenska Fornminnesföreningen, Siljestöms
and the use of your sauna. Stipendiestiftelse, Wallenbergsstiftelsens
Lastly, and most of all, I wish to thank Jubileumsfond, Vitterhetsakademien,
my own family: Samuel has assisted me Greta Arwidssons Fund, Kungliga Gustav
with all sorts of issues, both professional Adolfs Akademien and the Montelii Fund.
iv
CONTENTS
LIST OF PAPERS vi
PREFACE 1
1. INTRODUCTION 3
Topography and climate 3
Background - a brief survey of the history of Sigtuna 4
Medieval burial practices 6
2. THE MAIN MATERIAL 11
Chronology 15
The Sigtuna assemblages 18
Main aims 19
3. METHODS 21
Sex assessment 21
Estimation of age at death 22
Subadults 22
Summary of subadult age assessments 24
Adults 24
Summary of adult age assessments 26
Mean stature and robusticity 28
Analysis of stable isotopes and trace elements 29
The health index 29
Pathological definitions 31
Weapon-related trauma: sharp force trauma 33
Statistical analyses 34
4. RESULTS 35
The sex assessment technique 35
The sex distribution in Sigtuna and other Scandinavian materials 36
The age estimation technique 37
The age distribution in Sigtuna and other Scandinavian materials 38
Mean stature and robusticity 43
Analysis of stable isotopes and trace elements 47
The health index 49
Pathological status of the Sigtuna inhabitants 51
Specific pathological conditions 53
Description of the victims showing blade wounds 58
Comparisons of sharp force trauma in the three different contexts 61
The crania 61
The Postcranial bones 65
5. DISCUSSION 67
Who were they? 68
Migration 74
The quality of life in the urban Sigtuna 75
Signs of violence in medieval Scandinavia 82
Gender-related spheres and activity-related changes 84
Signs of social hierarchies 87
6. THE URBAN FARMER: CONCLUSIONS 89
REFERENCES 93
APPENDIX 113
CATALOGUE 115
v
LIST OF PAPERS
The thesis is based on the following papers, which will be referred to by their roman
numerals.
Paper I
Kjellström, A. Evaluations of Sex Assessment using Weighted Traits on Incomplete
Skeletal Remains. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14, pp 360-373.
(Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons Limited)
Paper II
Kjellström, A. A Sixteenth-Century Warrior Grave from Uppsala, Sweden: the Battle
of Good Friday. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15, pp 23-50.
(Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons Limited)
Paper III
Kjellström, A. A Case Study of Os Cuneiforme Mediale Bipartum from Sigtuna,
Sweden. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 14, pp 475-480.
(Reproduced with permission from John Wiley & Sons Limited)
Paper IV
Kjellström, A., Tesch, S., Wikström, A. IInnhhaabbiittaannttss ooff aa SSaaccrreedd TToowwnnssccaappee.. AAnn
Archaeological and Osteological Analysis of Skeletal Remains From Late Viking Age
and Medieval Sigtuna, Sweden. Accepted in Acta Archaeologica.
Paper V
Kjellström, A., Storå, J., Possnert, G. Dietary Patterns and Social Structures in
Medieval Sigtuna, Sweden, as reflected in Stable Isotope and Trace Element Values in
Human Skeletal Remains. Manuscript.
vi
PREFACE
My interest in the Middle Ages began or brick buildings, together with graceful
when I studied archaeology in Uppsala. wall paintings in churches and a variety of
I believed that this was the first and most written records, all suggest that the society
ancient era in Swedish history one could developed with increasing speed. Little
actually get a grip of archaeologically. is known about how this development
The period of incomprehensible and physically affected the population as a
possibly symbolic stone artefacts was over whole and as individuals in Sweden. Studies
and new epochs approached, where an of earlier human transitions, for example
obvious material world would tell the story. between subsistence strategies, have shown
How I was wrong! With more obvious that changes in human health may follow
archaeological finds in combination (cf. Cohen & Armelagos 1984). In general
with written documents completely new terms, it has been regarded a truism that the
questions needed to be answered. The medieval town was a densely populated dirty
intricacy of the debate about changes centre where increased risk of infectious
and boundaries of the landscape, political diseases resulted in an early death (e.g.
strategies, trade, manufacturing, religious Manchester 1992). It is undeniable that
symbolism and social behaviour was concentrated settlements, where exposure
magnified with the multitude of the source to parasites and bacteria from animals and
material. refuse pits was the norm, placed people at
One of many complex processes risk of epidemics. If the water supply was
characteristic of this era is urbanization. poor and contact with other populations
The process includes changes at almost was extensive, the situation was even
all levels of a society and may affect a worse. However, this vivid illustration must
population and an area permanently. perhaps be somewhat modulated. In a study
In Scandinavia this process starts in the of skeletons from more than 3500 graves,
Middle Ages, which could be considered Caroline Arcini (1999) demonstrated
the time of change towards a more modern that the health of the population of early
society. Between the end of the 10th and the Lund was relatively stable throughout the
early 16th centuries – more than 500 years Middle Ages (c. AD 950 to 1500). The
– a united state and a new religion were modest size of Scandinavian towns and
founded in Sweden. The artefacts collected their populations, together with a slow
in medieval cultural layers, ruins of stone process of urbanization, suggest that any
1
Anna Kjellström
human physical changes during the era
were likely to be moderate. Even though
Adam of Bremen describes the first Swedish
town Sigtuna as a Civitatas Magna, i.e. a
bishopric (Sawyer & Sawyer 1993: 108) or
great town (Tesch & Vincent 2003: 10), it
seems that this designation is more of an
ecclesiastical administrational definition
than one relating to population size.
I began my doctoral studies in 1996 with
a main focus to explore signs of physical
changes possibly related to urbanization
in different medieval Scandinavian human
skeletal materials. The project was large and
the variation between the materials made a
more consistent analysis complex. My first
contact with human osteological materials
from Sigtuna was in 1998 when I analysed
skeletons from the Fjärrvärmen excavation
followed by individuals from the Magistern
block. The dating of the individuals from
c. 970 to the 16th century in addition to
the archaeological and historical source
materials made me realize that the town’s
skeletal assemblages offered a great
opportunity to investigate my questions
regarding urbanization during this era.
Several years later, with the finished thesis
in my hand and with the response to
several of my initial questions in print, I
have become even more curious about the
people of Sigtuna.
2
1. INTRODUCTION
Topography and climate
Sigtuna is located on the promontory
of the north shore of Sigtunafjärden, a
narrow bay of Lake Mälaren (59o36’N
(lat.), 17o42 E’ (long.)) (Figure 1.1). The
many islands and bays create an east-west
oriented archipelago with close contact
to the Baltic Sea in the east. An elevation
of the land of more than five metres has
occurred since the Viking Age (Gustafsson
1991; Hammar 1999), suggesting a more
maritime character of the area during the
Middle Ages. The physical contact between
Lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea is thought
to have been cut off at the end of the 13th
century (Ambrosiani 1982: 79), with some
water-level fluctuation into modern times
(Nyberg 1986: 277).
In Sigtuna most of the soil consists of
moraine. The lake margins are composed
of clay deposits (Douglas 1978: 6). The
surrounding landscape is a mix, as well
as moraine and clay, of deposits of fine
sand, gravel and bare bedrock (mainly
granite and sedimentary gneiss) (Hammar 1.1. The geographic location of Sigtuna.
1999: 12f). Since the region belongs to the
boreonemoral vegetation zone (National macrofossils from Viking Age settlements
Board of Forestry), coniferous trees such as at Birka (Karlsson & Robertsson 1997;
pine (Pinus) and spruce (Picea) dominate. Karlsson 1997) and Fornsigtuna (Hammar
Roughly the same plants grew in the area 1999) indicate a successive clearing of
in the Middle Ages, although perhaps forests for grazing and cultivation and
with a different distribution (Karlsson changes to plant compositions that can
1997: 242). Analysis of pollen and plant be connected to domestic demands
3
Anna Kjellström
(Karlsson & Robertsson 1997). Based on son, Olov Skötkonung, became the first
observations and reconstructions of tree Christian king. The intensity and stability
rings in for example the south of Jämtland of his and his family’s royal power were
(Gunnarsson & Linderholm 2002), a manifested when Olov, as well as his son
period of warmer climate culminates about Anund Jakob, became the first Swedish
1000 years BP, but in the fifteenth century kings to be depicted on coins, minted in
a cooler period commences (Liljegren & Sigtuna (Lindkvist 1989b; Malmer 1989).
Lagerås 1993: 41; Grudd et al. 2002).
The town’s population and
the town plan
Background - a brief survey of
Excavations of the black earth in Sigtuna
the history of Sigtuna
have revealed that the town was planned
Sigtuna was founded between the Folk- and had a strictly regulated structure
land of Fjädrundaland and Attundaland already from its foundation at the end of
and on the border of Ärlinghundra and the 10th century (Tesch 1990; Pettersson
Håbo hundaren (Douglas 1978: 6). The 1995). Centrally placed in the town was a
choice of this location may be linked to larger town yard, interpreted by Tesch as
a decline of the nearby royal estate of the place for the royal manor, possibly of
Signhildsberg, a precursor to Sigtuna an earlier date than the town itself (Tesch
(Damell 1989, 1991, 1999; Tesch 1990). 1990, 2001). The long, dense plots or town
It may also be a deliberate attempt to show yards, ditches and wooden trackways were
detachment from old heathen traditions, arranged close together along the main
and to establish a site for the new religion street, Stora gatan, running parallel to
(Selinge 1989). the shoreline. Excavations have shown
Royal manifestations that the plot layout, the construction and
function of the houses within the plot,
A prevailing interpretation is that
underwent a number of changes over time
Sigtuna should be considered a religious
(Petterson B. 1990; Pettersson 1995). The
and ideological opposite to Birka (cf.
orientation of the town plots, with the
Hed Jacobsson 2003: 216). Tesch (1989)
shorter side facing the street, the back
applies previous opinions (Andrén 1985:
towards the seashore, together with the
17) regarding ideological continuity and
lack of bridge constructions indicates that
discontinuity to explain the process of
the main function of the town was not as
establishing the Swedish state. According
a trading place but rather as a centre of
to this theory, Sigtuna should not be seen
administration and manifestation of royal
as a successor to Birka, where trade was
power (Tesch 1989, 1996a). Within the
the basis of existence. Instead, the grounds
town, no or few finds of agrarian character,
for its emergence should be sought in the
such as ploughs, stables or barns, have been
unique situation in which a new religion
discovered (Högrell 1990; Pettersson B.
and a strong royal power could be united.
1990). Based on the number of plots, Tesch
When Sigtuna was founded, Erik Segersäll
(1990) estimated the population of Sigtuna
was king and Christianity had not yet
to be 650–1400 in the mid-11th century.
taken complete hold of the area. Erik’s
4
