Table Of Content,
r
Michael J. Dodds, o.p.
The Unchanging God of Love
7Z5'
ThomasAquinas and Contemporary Theology
on Divine Immutability
SECOND EDITION
The Catholic University ofA merica Press
Washington. D.c.
~~
Contents
Abbreviations ix
Introduction
1
1. The Immutability of Creatures 5
The Spectrum of Creaturely Immurability 5
The Meaning of Creaturely Immutability 29
Immutability and Creaturely Perfection 39
2.. The Immutability of God 46
Aquinas's Arguments for Divine Immutability 46
The Sources of the Arguments 105
The Meaning of Divine Immutability 134
3. The Motion of the Motionless God
161
Trinity 162
Creation 163
Providence 183
Incarnation 198
4· The Unchanging God of Love 2.04
Human Love as Moving and Motionless 205
Divine Love as Dynamic Stillness 207
Eschatological Union with the Unchanging God of Love 238
Conclusion
24'
Bibliography 245
Index ofTe xts of Thomas Aquinas 265
Index of Names
271
vii
Abbreviations
Abbreviations for the Works of Thomas Aquinas
Breve principium Breve principium de commendatione Sacrae Scripturae
Cat. auy. in joann. Catena aurea in Joannem
Cat. auy. in matt. Catena aurea inMatthaeum
Camp. Compendium the%giat
Contra doc. retra. Contradoctrinam retrahentium a religione
Contra err.graee. Contra trrores graecorum
Contra impug. Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem
De acter. mundi De aeternitate mundi
Deart·fid. De articulis fidei et ecdesiae sacramentis
De car. Decaritate
De duobus prace. De duohus praeceptis caritatis
De ente De ente at essentia
Demaio Quaestiones disputatae de malo
Depot. Quaestiones disputatae de potentia
Deprin. nat. De pn'ncipiis naturae
De rat.fid. De rationibus fidei
Desp. cr. Quaestio disputata de spiritualibus ereaturis
Desub.sep. De substantiis separatis
De un.int. De unitate intel/eetus
De unione verb; Quaestiones disputatae de Imione verbi inearnati
ix
x ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS xi
Dever. Quaestiones disputatae de veritate Super ad rom. Super epistolam ad Romanos Iectura
Devirt. Quaestiones disputatae de virtutihus in communi Super de causts Super librum De causis expositio
Bpis. ad bern. Epistola ad Bernardum abbatem Casinensem Super de trill. Expositio super librum Boethii De Trinitate
In dean. InAristotelis Iibrum De anima commentarium Super deeret. Expositio super primam et secundam decretalem
In de caelo. Commentan'um in librosAristotelis De caelo et mundo Superev.jo. Super evangelium S. Ioannis lectura
In de div. nom. In Iihrum beati Dionysii De divinis nominihus expositio Super-ev.matt. Super evangelium S.Matthaei lectum
In de memo In Iibrum De memoria et reminiscentja commentarium Super I ad cor. Super primam epistolam ad Corinthios lectum
In de sensu In Iibrum De sensu et sensato commentarium Super I ad tim. Super primam epistolam ad Timotheum lectum
In eth. Sententia Iibr; Ethz'corum Super II ad tim. Super secundam epistalam ad Timotheum lectura
In jer. In /eremiam prophetam expositio Superioh Expositio super lob ad litteram
In meta. InMetaphysicamAristotelis commentaria Super is. Expositio super Isaiam ad Iitteram
In peri herm. Commentarium inAristotelis Iibros Peri henneneias Super sym apos. Expositio super symbolo apostolorum
Inphys. In octo Iibros PhysicorumAristotelis expositio
Other Abbreviations
Inpsalmos In psalmos Davidis expositio
Denz. Enchz'ridion Symbolorum, ed. H. Denzinger and Peter
ITOO Opera omnia ut sunt in Indice Thomistico
Hiinermann
Prin. biblicum Pn'ncipium de commendatione et partitione Sacrae Scripturae
IPQ International Philosophical Quarterly
Q. dean. Quaestio disputata de anima
MS Mediaeval Studies
Quodl. Quaestiones quodlibetales
Meta. Aristotle,Metaphysics
Resp. ad veneto Responsio ad lectorem M!netum de 36 articulis
NS The New Scholasticism
Resp. ad ver. Responsio ad magistrum Ioannem de M!rcellis de 108 articulis
PACPA Proceedings oft heAmerican Catholic PhJ1osophicalAssociation
SCG Summa contra gentiles
PG Patrologiae Cursus Complet~s, series Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne
Sent. Scriptum super libros Sententjarum
Phys. Aristotle. Physics
Senno Senno de omnibus sanctis
PL Patrologiae Cursus Completus, series Latina. ed.J. P. Migne
SF Summa theologiae
Super ad col. Super epistolam ad Colossenses lectuM
Super ad eph. Super epistolam ad Ephesios lectura
Super ad gal. Super epistolam ad Galatas lectura
Super ad hebr. Super epistolam ad Hebraeos lectura
Super ad phil. Super epistolam ad Philippenses lectum
Introduction
7l5'
In the theology of St. Thomas Aquinas, the unchanging God revealed in
Scripture, attested in the tradition of the Church, and established through
philosophical argument is consistently identified as the one who "so loved
the world that he gave his only Son" On 3:16). The loving and provident God,
the source of "every perfect gift;' is also the immutable God "in whom there
is no variation or shadow due to change:'! In affirming divine immutability,
Aquinas reflects the constant teaching of the Church, which from its earliest
pronouncements always maintained that the God oflove is unchanging.' He
echoes voices of the past, such as St. Augustine, who prayed to the God who
is "unchangeable and yet changing all things.'" He anticipates voices of the
future. St. Teresa of Avila, the sixteenth-century Spanish mystic and Doc
tor of the Church would speak of God as one who "does not change" and
LJ as 1:17. The Revised Standard Version of the Bible (The Holy Bible [New York: Collins, 1973]) is
used throughout this work, except in translations of passages quoted by Aquinas. Thomas often re
fers to Jas 1:17. finding in it an affirmation of divine immutability and providence: Super tv. jo. XVII, leet.
3 (§2213); Super I ad tim. I, leet. 1 (§6)jSI' III. 39. 6, ad 2; Super ad rom. I, leet. 4 (§71)i Super I ad car. I,
lect.l (§9); Super ad phil. I, leet. 1 (§7); Super ad hebr. VI, leet. 1 (§2.89); Super cv. jo. I, leCt.14 (§.t69); Super
cv. matt. III, 1eet. 2. (§30o); XXV, leet. 2. (§2059); leet.3 (§2.094).
2.Denz. 126 (Nicea, 325); Denz. 197 (Toledo, 400); Dell%. 300 (Chalcedon, 451); Denz. 501 (Lateran
synod, 649);Denz. 683 (Leo IX, 1054);Denz. 800 (IV Lateran, 1215); Denz. 853 (II Lyons, 1274); Den%.
1330 (Florence, 1442);Denz. 2901 (Syllabus of modern errors,1846); Denz. 3001,3°24 (Vatican I, 1870);
and Pastoral Constitution on the Church in theModern WOrld (Gaudium etspes), no. 10 in The Documents ofYatl··
can II, ed. Austin Flannery (New York: Pillar Books, 1975).
3. Augustine, The Confessions oiSt.Augustine, trans. J. Ryan (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1960),
bk. I. chap. 4, 45.
2 INTRODUCT ION INTRODUCT ION 3
"alone suffices:" Elizabeth of the Trinity, the French Carmelite contempla immutability often start with the very word "immutable:' Aquinas employs
tive of the last centuty, would pray to God as "my Unchanging One:" And over thirty different words and expressions to signify immutability. He ap
Sigrid Undset, the twentieth-centuty Notwegian novelist, would describe plies these to both God and creatures. Depending on the context, creaturely
herself as "a pilgrim of the absolute" in search of "that which in no way ever immutability may be a happy or unhappy condition. Since we know of God
changes."6 from creatures, we will best judge the appropriateness of calling God immu
Such voices are now challenged by others who question whether an im table if we have first seen the positive and negative connotations of creature
mutable God is truly a God of love. To a number of contemporaty theolo ly immutability.
gians and philosophers, it no longer seems the God "in whom there is no The texts of Aquinas provide a kind of laboratory for conducting this in
variation or shadow due to change" can really be the "Father of lights," the vestigation. The Index Thomisticus, a printed and electronic concordance of all
providential author of "evety perfect gift." They are convinced that an un his works, will serve as our "microscope" to expose the ways he uses words
changing God must be indifferent, uncaring, and remote from creation. They for immutability" The results of this research as regards creaturely immuta
therefore propose that the notion of divine immutability be radically modi bility, presented in chapter I, provide an overview of the positive and nega
fied or quietly abandoned. The theologian they most often single out in their tive connotations of the notion.
critique of divine immutability is Thomas Aquinas.' As Emilio Brito sums it Having seen how immutability is said of creatures, we will be ready to
up, "Today the immutable God of Thomas Aquinas has bad press.'" consider God's changelessness. Chapter 2 will look at Aquinas's arguments
How are we to respond to this "bad press" and evaluate arguments criti for divine immutability and their biblical. patristic, and philosophical sourc
cal of Aquinas and the tradition he represents? If Aquinas is the theologian es, concluding with a reflection on the significance and appropriateness of
of choice for those who find fault with divine immutability, we should at calling God immutable. Since our investigation will also uncover a number
least know what he says and, equally important, does not say on the topic. of ways he attributes motion to God, chapter 3 will focus on the "motion of
Our examination of this thirteenth-centuty theologian may help us see how the motionless God."'o Finally, chapter 4 will show how Aquinas's unchang
a Doctor of the fifth century, a mystic of the sixteenth, and a novelist of the ing God is truly the God oflove.
twentieth can all affirm the Christian God as unchanging. It may also illumi Throughout our discussion, we will address arguments of contempo
nate the sources of difficulties many contemporaty theologians encounter in raty theologians who question divine immutability. There were many such
making a similar affirmation. thinkers at the time the first edition of this work appeared in 1986, and their
Our inquity will begin on the level of words since problems with divine number has not diminished. For some, it has become a basic theological as-
4. "Dios no se muda ... 5610 Dios basta" (St. Teresa of Avila, "Nada te cucbe," in ObrasCompletas. 9-Robert Busa, ed., Index Thomisticus: Sancti Thomae Aquinatis Operum Omnium Indices et Concordan
ed. Efren de la Madre de Dios and Orger Steggink [Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1967], tiae (Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog. 1975); idem, Thomae Aquinatis Operum Omnium cum hypertextibus
51l). Translations throughout this work are those of the author unless otherwise indicated. in CD-ROM. 2nd ed. (Milano: Editoria Elettronica Editel.I996). The following words were researched
5. Elizabeth of the Trinity, "0 My God. Trinity Whom I Adore," in The Complete U&rks. trans. Ale~ throughout Aquinas's works: jigo,jirmitas.jirma,jirmus.fixio, immobilis. immobilitas. immobilitatio, immobilito,
theia Kane (Washington, D.C,: ICS PubJications, 1984), 1:183· immutabilis, immutabilitas, impassibilis, impassibilitas. inalterabilis. incommutabilis. incommutabilitas, inconversibilis.
6. Sigrid Uodset, Etapper (1929), 233. as quoted in Lars Roar Langslet, "La conversion de Sigrid inwnvertibt1is, indedinaMis, indedinabilitas. indefictibilis. indejiciens, indejidentia. indemutahilis, infiexibiIis. in/lexi
Undset:' Revue des sciences religieuses 40 (1966): 240, 247,249· bilitas. intransmutabilis. intransmutabilitas, invariabi!is. invariabi/itas. The following common phrases for the
7. See, for example, Nicholas Wolterstorff's extensive review and critique ofA quinas's account of di notion of immutability, which are listed separately in the printed edition of the Index Thomisticus, were
vine immutability in his article, "Suffering Love," in Philosophy and the Christian Faith, ed. Thomas V. Mot also researched: "moveo + immobilis. "and 'moveo + non + moveo," 'sine + motu." The 12.366 references to
ris (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988),196-237- "movco" and the 13,504 references to "motus"were likewise examined in the printed edition. In all, about
8. "Le Dieu immuable de Thomas di\quin a aujourd'hui mauvaise pressel' (Emilio Brito, "Dieu en 3,600 references were individually investigated in the works of Aquinas.
mouvement: Thomas di\quin et Hegel," Revue dessciences religieuses 62 [I988}:m). 10.In de div. nom. IX,lect. 4 (§841).
4 INTRODUCT ION
sumption that the God of Christian faith must be changeable or passible."
Not only in process theology, but in such diverse areas of inquiry as libera
tion theology, Open Theism, feminist theology, and the science-religion dia
logue, many scholars have included God's changeableness among the basic
tenets of their theology. U Followers of Aquinas have also had a good deal to
~ay about divine immutability and related themes in the intervening years,I)
CHAPTER ONE
Some evangelical theologians have also taken up the challenge of defending
the traditional doctrine of divine immutabiliry.l4 The present edition of this The Immutability of Creatures
wOlk has profited from the new voices that have emerged both defending
w
and challenging the notion of divine immutabiliry. It is hoped that this study
will help us to affirm with Aquinas that the unchanging God is the providen
tial God of love, that "every good endowment and every perfect gift is from
above, coming down from the Father of lights in whom there is no variation
or shadow due to change" aas 1:17).
In this chapter, we will track down the thirty-some words and expres
ll. Over twenty years ago, Ronald Goetz observed. "The age·old dogma that God is impassible and sions Aquinas uses for creaturely immutabiliry and identifY their positive
immutable, incapable of suffering. is for many no longer tenable. The ancient theopaschite heresy that
and negative connotations. To him the whole spectrum of creation is marked
God suffers has, in fact. become the new orthodoxy" ("The Suffering God: The Rise of a New Ortho
doxy," Christian Century 10) [1986J: 385). Today, Gloria L. Schaab declares: "I join my voice with those by change and changelessness. In tracing creaturely immutability, we will
who say that understandings of God as immutable. impassible, and unlimited in power are no longer have to wend our way through technical thickets of Thomas's metaphysics,
viable in a cosmos beset by suffering and death" ("The Creative Suffering of the Triune God: An Evolu
cosmology, psychology, and even angelology-since all created things, from
tionary Panentheistic Paradigm:' Theology and &ienu 5 [2007]: 2.90).
12..Among liberation theologians, see Jon Sobrino,Jesus meLibemtor:A Historical-Theological Reading oysters to angels, get labeled as immutable in some way or other.' Our aim
of Jesus of Nazareth (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993), 2.40-2.46, and Leonardo Boff, Passion of Chnsr,
is not to explain these subjects in depth, only to see how immutability is in
Passion of the H-flrld (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1987), 114-115. Feminist theolOgian Elizabeth John
son carefully notes that, although the affirmation of divine suffering is a theologically preferable way volved in each. Once we've waded through these topics, we will be able to
of speaking about God, "[i]n no way is this theological speech intended to yield a literal description of give a synthetic account of the positive and negative aspects of creaturely im
God" (She W'ho Is: The Mystery ofG od in a Feminist Theological Discourse [New York: Crossroad, 1992.], 271).
mutability. We will then be ready to look at the plusses and minuses of di
At the same time, she seems to endorse the views of other theologians who see divine suffering not
only as a linguistic preference but as an ontological truth (2.46-272).Among proponents of Open The vine immutabiliry.
ism. see Clark H. Pinnock,Most Moved Mover:A Theology of God's Openness (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker
Books, 2001). Regarding figures in the science and religion dialogue, see Ian Barbour, Religion and Science:
Historical and Contemporary Issues (San Francisco: HarperSanfrancisco, 1997), )2.2.-3)2.; Anhur Peacocke,
Theology for a ScientijicAge: Beingand Becoming-Natural, Divine, and Human (Minneapolis, Minn.: Fonress THE SPECTRUM OF CREATURELY IMMUTABILITY
Press, 1993), 113-134; and Gloria 1. Schaab, Creative Suffering of the Triune God.' An Evolutionary Theology
Human Beings
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 15, 141-168.
13. See, for example, Mario Enrique Sacchi, "El Dios inmutable de la filosofia perenne y de la fe Change and changelessness are applied to humans in many ways. Hu
Cat6Iica," Doctor Communis 42. (1989): 2.43-273; Brian Davies, "The Action of God," New Blackfo'ars 75
man nature is changeable in some ways and unchangeable in others. ':AJ-
(1994): 76-84; idem,An Introduction to the Philosophy ofR eligion, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993),
141-167; and Thomas G. Weinandy,Does God Suffir?(Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press,
2000).
L See MichaeIJ.Dodds, "Of Angels, Oysters and an Unchanging God:Aquinas on Divine Immuta
14. See Douglas S. Huffman and Eric L. Johnson, eds., God under Fire:Modern Scholarship Reinvents
bility." Listening30 (1995):35-49.
God (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2002.).
5
6 THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES
7
nev
though nature, considered independently, is unchangeable (immobilis), tellect is identified as God. The human intellect, to the extent that it partici
ertheless, considered according to its being, it is necessary that it change pates that superior intellect, is "impassible (impassibilis)."lo
accidentalIy as the individual person changes.'" Humans are both spiritu
Our inteIlectual faculry may be distinguished into the "possible intellect,"
al and physical and are marked by motion and immobiliry in each aspect. which knows the forms of sensible things immaterially, and the "agent intel
Physically, mobiliry is a plus and immobiliry a minus. Being mobile is a sign lect," which makes those forms actually intelligible by abstracting them from
of life; being "immobile (immobile)," a mark of death.' In the realm of hu their material conditions in things." The forms or species are abstracted by
man emotion, immobiliry may be good or bad. The immobiliry of love is a
the agent intellect and then received by the possible intelIect.As a receiver, it
sign of its preeminence. Love is the first, strongest, and most perfect of af has a kind of "passibiliry (Passio)" and so is said "to suffer (pab). "12 In its sub
fections precisely because it is from love as "an immovable first principle stance, however, it is "immutable (zmmutabr1is)." Since its substance is immu
(primo immobili quieto)" that alI other affections proceed" The bodily immu table and since "what is received into something is in it according to the mode
tabiliry brought on by excess anger, fear, or sorrow, however, is not desirable of the receiver," the intelligible species are received into the possible intellect
and may be fatal, leading to "taciturniry, immobiliry (immobilitas) of the out "immovably (immobiliter)."1J The universal concept that the possible intellect
ward members and sometimes even death."s If excess emotion is bad, so is then produces is also "immobile (immobile)," allOWing us to "know the truth
deficient passion, since it may signal the indifference or "impassibiliry (im about changeable things (mutabilibus) unchangingly (immutabiliter). "14
passibilitas)" of the vice of "insensibiliry (insensibilitas)."· Spiritually, the soul
The characteristic acts of the intellect are understanding, judging, and
is "immutable (immutabile)" in its being and "unfailing (indeficientem)" in its reasoning. While understanding happens "without motion (sine motu)," rea
life.' As the source of life and motion for the body, it acts as an "unmoved soning entails movement and is compared to understanding lias movement
mover (movens non motum).//8 is to rest."lS Still, reasoning begins with first principles that are "immovable
Human intellectual life is marked by motion and immutabiliry. Our in (immobiles)" and "unchangeable (incommutabiles)," being "a certain likeness of
teIlect involves mobiliry since it "reaches to the understanding of truth byar uncreated truth:' So "when we judge about other things through them, we
guing, with a certain amount of discourse and movement," It is consequent do this through unchangeable (incommutabiles) principles or through uncre
ly imperfect since "it does not understand everything," and since Ilin those ated truth."I.
things it does understand, it passes from potency to act:' Recognizing these Aquinas classifies the speculative sciences according to their varying de
limitations, Aquinas argues "there must be a higher inteIlect by which the grees of abstraction from matter and motion.l7 Physics or natural philoso
soul is helped to understand" since "what is such by participation and what phy is an "immovable (immobilem)" science of movable things." It gives us
is movable and what is imperfect always requires the pre-existence of some "knowledge of mutable and material things existing outside the soul through
thing essentialIy such, immovable (immobIle), and perfect:" This higher in- universals which are immobile (immobI1es) and are considered without par-
10,STI. 79> 4, CO.; 5. ad I;SCG II,q8.8 (§lS92).
2. Sent. II.)I, 1, 1, ad 1. Cf.: N,26, 1,1, ad3i.ITIHI, 57. 2, ad 1; Q,184. 4, ad l,ln eth. V, lect.12 (line 156
11, ST I. 79, 3.
c. and line 198 c.).
12.Indean. III,lect, 7 (§676);De un.int. e,l,line 333 e,
J4.. SSCenGt. IIIIII,, c2.713.19,. 137. c(o§.3 C1f4.:4S)·e nt. III. 27.1, 3. ad I; ST 1·11, 25. 2. I3·SuperI adCor. XIII,leet.3 (§791)jQuodl III, Q.9. a.t (21), eo.;STI. 79. 6, eo.;STI, 84, l,eo.
5. .IT I·II. 48, 4. ad 3. Cf.: Super is. VIII. v.u (line 368 c.):.IT I-II, 39. 3. ad 1; Q37. 2; Q.JS; 8, CO.; 14,STI, 84,6, ad 1; Q.86, 1, CO. Cf.:Superde mn, Q.S, 2, ad 4:In eth, VI. leer. 1 (line 194 c.),
IS. Sent, 11,12, I,S.div. text.;STI. 79, 8, co. Cf.: Q.S8, 3, co.
Sent.III,26,l,3,eo.
16 . .Dt ver. Q.lO, 6, ad 6. Cf.:In eth. VI,leer. 9 (line 159 e.)jQuodl. X. Q.4, a.l (7), co.
6.STn-I1, 142, L 7.Dever. Q.22, 6, ad I. Cf.:Desp.cr. a.2, se.
170 Superde tn'1l. Q.5. 1. co. Cf.: In phys. II,leer.H.3 (§243).
8.SeG lI,e.6s.s (§1430). 9.STI, 79,4,eo.Cf.:Desp.cr. alo.eo. 18.STI, 84, 1, ad3.
8 THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES
THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES
9
ticular matter:'l9 Mathematics yields mathematical objects that are "immo
marked by "immutability (immobilitas)" of will, but by "mutability (mutabili
bile Cimmobdia)" insofar as they are considered apart from motion, though
tas) in body and soul:'" The virtuous person does not necessarily practice
they really exist only in material or mobile things.20 Metaphysics allows us
virtue "unchangingly (immobiliter),"'O and the vicious one is not "immovable
to srudy entities existing without matter and motion. The contemplation of (immobllem)" in rhe tendency to evil. 31
the "immutable (immutabiles)" objects of this science is one of the greatest
To remain virtuous, humans must develop good habits and persevere in
human pleasures.21
them "immovably (immobiliter). "32 A habit becomes a virtue only when pos
The human will, like the intellect, is characterized by change and change
sessed "firmly (firme)" and "immutably (immutabiliter). ,," Aquinas finds Aris
lessness. As the intellect adheres necessarily to unchangeable first princi
totle and St. Paul in agreement on this point: ':Among the various conditions
ples, the will adheres "naturally and immovably (immobiliter)" to its last end
of a good will, one is thar the will be firm (firma) and steadfast (stabilis) ...
of happiness." The will is directed by a knowledge of the good in gener
Whence theApostle admonishes: 'Be steadfast (stabiles) and immovable (im
al, which it possesses "naturally and invariably (immutabiliter) and without
mobiles).' And according to the Philosopher, it is required for virtue that one
error."" The natural habit of the first principles of action (synderesis), which
act firmly (firmiter) and immovably Cimmobiliter). "'4 ,
warns against evil and inclines to good, is a "permanent principle which
The rheological virtues provide an example of such immovability. By
has unwavering (immutabilem) integrity:'" In other ways the will is change
faith, we embrace the "never-changing truth (semper eodem modo se habentem
able. As an appetitive power, it is moved by the things it apprehends. Each
veritatem)" of divine knowledge and so are "freed from the instability and
of them, in relation to the will, is called an "unmoved mover (movens non mo
multiplicity of error."" We enjoy the "immutability (immobilitatem)" of the
tum)," while the will is a "moved mover (movens motum).""
faith of the elect who stand "immovably (immobiliter)" and are "firmly (fir
As regards free choice, the will is "changeable (venibile) by its very
miter)" established in the truth.'· In hope, we find a "most steadfast (firmis
nature:'" This changeability is good: "Although a creature would be better
simum)" consolation, which is associated with two "immutable (immoMes)"
if it adhered unchangeably (immobiliter) to God, nevertheless that one also
things: "God, who promises and who does not lie" and "the oath in which
is good which can adhere to God or not adhere:'" The foundation of the
the confirmation of the truth is greater:'" As an anchor "immobilizes (im
will's changeable freedom is its unchanging determination to its last end:
mobilitat)" a ship, hope "firmly fastens (firmat) the soul to God in this world,
"Because everything mobile is reduced to what is immobile (immobile) as its
which is a kind of sea."" Finally, charity unites us with God and "rests im
principle, and everything undetermined to what is determined, that to which
movably (sistat)" in him.'> Charity is the roOt of all virtues since virtue arises
the will is determined must be the principle of tending to the things to which
from a desire for rhe "immutable (incommutabilis)" good, and charity is that
it is not determined; and this is the last end:'" Humans in this life are not very desire for or love of God.40
19. Super de trin. Q.S. 2, co. 29·SCG N, e·71·4 (§4058);Comp. I, C.145. 30.STII-II, 137,4, ad I.
20.1n meta. VI, leer. uS (§n6L), C[.:Superde trin. Q,s. a.), co.;ln phys. II, Ject.J.7 (§t6J). 3LDe vcr. Q,24, 12, co.; SCG IV; C7q (§4058).
21.ln em. X,lea.lo(line 12.4 co). C[.:STIHI,180, 8,co. 32./11 ell!. II, leet.4 (line 85 e.);Superuri col. I, Jeet. 3 (§22).
22.STl, 82, 1,CO. 33. De lIer. Q,27,5, ad lL Cf.:STII-II, 1)7;l,ad3'
2). De ver. Q,24, 8, co. Here the Mandonnet edition (Paris: LethieHeux. 1925) is used. This agrees 34· Contra doc. retra. e.12 (line 25 c.); STI-II, IDa, 9. co. Cf.: II-II, 58, 1. co.; Sent. 11,38,1,5. ad 5; In
with the Vives edition (Paris, 1889), the Marieni edition (Turin, 1953). and ITOO. The Leonine edition ell!. u, leer. 4 (line 74 c.).
(1976) changes 'Ymmutabiliter" to "universaliter" without explanatory note. 35·]flller. Q,14,8.eo.
24.Dever. QJ6,2,co.Cf.:STI, 79, 12, ad J. 25.ST1, 80,2,CO. cf.:De ver. Q,25, 1,eo. 36.Superllqdtim. II,Iect·3 (§69-70);In dedill.nom. VII.lect.5 (§737).
26. ST II-II, 1)7; 4, co. 2'7. De lIer. Q,24, I, ad 16. 37-Superad nebr. VI, leet. 4 (h.24). J8.Ibid. (§3.25).
28. De vcr. Q,22, 6, co. 39-STII-II. 2).3. co.; 6, co. 4o.STI-II, 84, 1, ad 1.
10 THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES THE IMMUTABILITY OF CREATURES
II
If virtue consists in being in some way "immutably fastened (fixus)" to
grace, which "draws free choice to the character (rationem) of its own invari
God, vice is found in those who, lacking this attachment, seek their happi
ability (immutabilitatis), joining it to God."" Given Our changeable human
ness in other things." Sin is defined as a turning from the "immutable (in
will, however, even one who has received grace does not necessarily abide
commutabili) good to some changeable good."" It is the mark of Christian
"unchangeably (immobiliter)" in good." Only by a special gift of God is one
maturity to abandon the instability of the child who "is never fixed (fixus) or . able to remain steadfast in grace until death. ,.
determined in anything:' and to become firm in faith." Such stability does
On the social level, some human institutions are characterized by im
not imply apathy or insensitivity. Following Aristotle, Aquinas rejects the
mutability. Perfect friendship, for instance, is "of itself unchangeable
opinion of the Stoics that virtues are "certain apathetic states (impassibilitates (inlransmutabrlis)."Sl Civil happiness does not possess an unqualified "in
quasdam)."" Inordinate impassibility, like inordinate passion, is a vice: "As variability (immutabilitatem)," but is called "unvarying (immutabilis)" in that
the intemperate man abounds in his quest for pleasures, so the insensible
it is not easily changed. 52 In the area of law, Aquinas makes a number of
(insensibilis) man-his counterpart-is deficient in the same affairs .... But distinctions. The eternal law, which is the design (ratio) of divine wisdom
one following a middle course in these matters is temperate:'" The "immo
as moving all things to their due end, is itself "vnchangeable ttuth (veritas
bility" of virtue does not denote imprisonment in apathy but the freedom incommutabilis)."" Natural law, which is the participation of the eternal law in
of the children of God: "Paul induces to good when he says, 'Stand fast: As the rational creature, "is altogether immutable (immutabilis) in its first prin
if to say: Since you have been set free from the bondage of the Law through
ciples:' This law, however, may be changed by addition (when it is supple
Christ, stand fast and, with your faith firm (firma) and feet planted (fixo),
mented by divine and human laws), and it may be changed by subtraction in
persevere in freedom. When he says, 'Stand fast: he exhorts them to recti
its secondary principles "in some particular cases of rare occurrence."54 The
tude .... Likewise he exhorts them to be firm: 'Therefore, be steadfast and
commandments of the divine law (especially the Decalogue) are "unchange
unmovable (immobiles).""· able (immutabilia)" with respect to the principles of justice they embody. As
The virtuous cannot remain unchangeably upright through human pow
applied to individual actions (in determining for instance, whether or not a
er alone. Every creature, since it is made from nothing, is changeable. And particular action should be considered murder), they admit of change, some
whatever is changeable in itself "needs the help of an immovable mover
times by divine authority alone, and sometimes also by human authority!'
(moventis immobilis) so that it may be fixed on one objective." The human be
Human laws are changeable since human reason is changeable and imper
56
ing who is changeable in the choice of good or evil "needs divine help in or fect.
der to continue immovably (immobiliter) in the good:'" This aid is found in In their original state of innocence, humans were in some ways "impas
sible (impassibilis)." Aquinas explains that in the proper sense of the word
41. Contra impug. cap.lO, ad 4 (line 121 c.);Superiob IX, V.}1 (line 685 c.). "passion (passio)" refers to what a thing is said "to suffer (pati)" when it is
42. ST II-II. 20,1, ad 1.
4J. Super ad eph. rv; lect. 5 (§219), changed from its natural disposition. In this sense, human beings were "im-
44. De malo Q.l2.,I, ad 13. Cf.:In phys. VII,leer. 6.3 (§921);STI-II, 59. 2, ad l;ll1 eth. II, leer.) (line 116
c.); Sent. N, 14. 1, 1, QC.2, ad 3.
45./11 eth. VII, leer. 7 (line 88 c,). Cf.: Sf II-II, 142, a.t. The word "impassibilitas" has two connota 48.Dever. Q.24, 8, ad 6.
tions. One, the freedom from suffering of the saints, is to be desired. The other. the apathy bywhich the 49-STII-II,I37.4,eo.
"insensible" avoid suffering, is to be shunned. Cf.: Ludwig Schutz, Thomas-Lexikon (Paderborn: F. Schon 50.STI-II, 109, 10, co.; II-II, 137. 4, eo.;Superiob rv. v.18 (line 456 c.).
ingh,1895),372. 52.IIl eth. VIII, leet. 4 (line 86 c.); Jeet. 6 (line 194 c.).
46.Superadgal. V, lect.l (§277). 52.Dever. Q.24.7. ad 10. 53.STI-II, 93. 2. co.; a.l, co.
47 SeG III, e.155.2 (§p81). Cf.: 155.4 (§3283); De ver. Q.24, 1, ad 16); De pot. Q.l, 2, ad 4; Resp. ad. 54·51'1-11.94.5. co. Cf.: Q.91. 2. co. 55.STI-II, 100. 8, ad J.
ver. . art.18 (line 294 c.). 56.51'I-Il, 97,1. ad L Cf.: ad 2; Q.90,4, co.; Q.91.3. co.
